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Rethinking the Internet of Things.pdf
Contents at a Glance
Contents
About the Author
About the Project Manager
About the Technical Reviewer
Acknowledgments
Foreword
Chapter 1: It’s Different Out Here
Why the Internet of Things Requires a New Solution
It’s Networking on the Frontier
It Will be (Even) Bigger than Expected
Terse, Purposeful, and Uncritical
Dealing with Loss
The Protocol Trap
Mind the Overhead
More Smarts, More Risk
The Overhead of Overhead
Humans Need Not Apply
Economics and Technology of the Internet of Things
Functionality Costs Money
Inexpensive Devices Can’t Bear Traditional Protocols
Overseeing 700 Billion Devices
Only Where and When Needed
Security Through Simplicity (and Stupidity)
Cost and Connectivity
Solving the IoT Dilemma
Inspiration for a New Architecture
Nature: The Original Big Data
Autonomy of Individuals
Zones and Neighborhoods of Interest
In the Eyes of the Beholder
Signal Simplicity
Leveraging Nature
Peer-to-Peer Is Not Equal
Transporting IoT Traffic
Billions of Devices; Three Functional Levels
Propagator Nodes Add Networking Functionality
Collecting, Integrating, Acting
When the Scope Is Too Massive
Functional vs. Physical Packaging
Connecting to the “Big I”
Smaller Numbers, Bigger Functionality
Chapter 2: Anatomy of the Internet of Things
Traditional Internet Protocols Aren’t the Solution for Much of the IoT
Introducing the “Chirp ”
Lightweight and Disposable
Functionality the IoT Needs—and Doesn’t
Efficiency Out of Redundancy
It’s All Relative
Format Flexibility
Private Markers for Customization and Extensibility
Addressing and “Rhythms ”
Family Types
Applying Network Intelligence at Propagator Nodes
Transport and Functional Architectures
Functional Network Topology
Defined by Integrator Functions
Harvesting Information from the IoT
Programming and “Bias”
Receiver-Oriented Selectivity
Chapter 3: On the Edge
A World of Different Devices
Intended to be Untended: Some Examples of IoT Systems
Temporary and Ad Hoc Devices
Addressing an Uncertain Frontier
Reliability Through Numbers
Meaning from Many
End Devices in Dedicated Networks
Expanding to the World
Converting States to Chirps
“Setting” End Devices
Cornucopia of Connections
Chirp on a Chip
Aftermarket Options
RFID Integration in the Internet of Things
End Devices with Higher Demands
The Big Idea: “Small” Data
Chapter 4: Building a Web of Things
Versatility in Function and Form
Architecting Trees and Leaves
On Behalf of Chirps at the Edge
Isolating and Securing the Edge
Autonomy and Coordination
Structuring a Networking Path
Structuring a Tree—with Redundancy
Housekeeping
By Any Means
Take Out the Thrash
The Power of Bias and the Role of the Integrator Function
Bias and Influence
Degrees of Functionality
Aggregating End Points
Dumping the Dupes
Loading the Bus: The Propagator Node Transit System
Weathering the Storms
Dodging the Collisions
What’s in a Name?
Packaging Options
Building Blocks of the IoT
Chapter 5: Small Data, Big Data, and Human Interaction
The “Brains” of the IoT
For Once, IP Makes Sense
Extracting the Streams
Analysis and Control
Chirps to “Small Data” to Big Data: An Example
Neighborhoods and Affinities
Public, Private, and Some of Each
Bias Bonus
Searching for and Managing Agents
High- and Low-Level “Loops ”
Human Interface and Control Points
Machines and Metcalfe
Collaborative Scheduling Tools
Packaging and Provisioning
Distribut ed Integrator Functions
Location, Location, Location
Filtering the Streams
Accessing the Power of the Internet of Things
Chapter 6: Architecture for the Frontier
A Necessary Alternative to IP
A Big Problem, and Getting Bigger
An Alternative Inspired by Nature
A Protocol Based on Category Classifications
Skeletal Architecture of Chirp Packets
Individual Information within Chirp Signatures
“Light” Error Detection and Security
Generic Chirp Handling
Incognito Chirp Transport
Transmission Agility Information within the Chirp
Extensible, Nonunique, Pattern-driven
Category Byte Size
Marker Pattern Templates
Finer Control via Agents
Scheduling the Bus
Routing on Category Classifications
Managing the Load
Propagator Node Networks and Operation
A Tree Grows in the IoT
Choosing Parents Wisely
Scanning and Switching
Specialized and Basic Routing
Housekeeping Frames for Network Intelligence
Latency and Throughput Tradeoffs
Routing Table Updates
The Power of Local Agents and Integrator Functions
Task Scheduling within the Internet of Things
Higher-level Interchange
Managing Multiple Isochronous Relationships
An Organic Solution for the IoT
Chapter 7: Examples and Applications
Controlling the Cacophony
Intelligence Near the Edge
Incorporating Legacy Devices
Staying in the Loop(s)
Okay on their Own
All the World Is a Subscription
Exploring Affinities
Social Machines
Agriculture
Home Health Care
Safe and Efficient Process Control
Better Perimeter Security and Surveillance
Faster Factory Floors
True Home Automation
Wholesale and Retail: Beyond RFID
A Broader “Net” in Natural Sciences
Living Applications
Chapter 8: Pathways to the Internet of Things
Data Drives a Change
Classification is the Challenge, Chirp is the Answer
The Ends are the Means
Begin at the Edge
Making a Mark
Acting on Markers
Propagator Nodes Provide the “and”
Open-Source Networking Solutions
Gaining Access
The Standards Conundrum
Machine-to-Machine Communications and Autonomy
Shared Vocabularies and de facto Standards
Build it and End Devices will Come
OEM Leverage
Shared Software and Business Process Vocabularies
Working in Groups
Call to Constituencies for the IoT
Semiconductor Providers
Appliance and Other End Device Manufacturers
Networking Equipment Vendors
Home Automation/Entertainment Suppliers
Carriers and Big Data Providers
Major End-to-End OEMs
Global Scope, Vast Numbers, Constant Adaptation, New Insights
Index
For your convenience Apress has placed some of the front
matter material after the index. Please use the Bookmarks
and Contents at a Glance links to access them.
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Contents at a Glance
About the Author ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� xv
About the Project Manager ������������������������������������������������������������ xvii
About the Technical Reviewer �������������������������������������������������������� xix
Acknowledgments �������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxi
Foreword �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� xxiii
Introduction ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xxv
■
Chapter 1: It’s Different Out Here
��������������������������������������������������� 1
■
Chapter 2: Anatomy of the Internet of Things
����������������������������� 23
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Chapter 3: On the Edge
����������������������������������������������������������������� 41
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Chapter 4: Building a Web of Things
�������������������������������������������� 59
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Chapter 5: Small Data, Big Data, and Human Interaction
������������� 77
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Chapter 6: Architecture for the Frontier
��������������������������������������� 95
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Chapter 7: Examples and Applications
��������������������������������������� 123
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Chapter 8: Pathways to the Internet of Things
��������������������������� 143
Index ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� 161
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Introduction
I didn’t set out to develop a new architecture for the Internet of Things (IoT). Rather, I
was thinking about the implications of control and scheduling within machine social
networks in the context of Metcalfe’s Law. The coming tsunami of machine-to-machine
interconnections could yield tremendous flows of information – and knowledge.
Once we free the machine social network (comprised of sensors and an
unimaginable number of other devices) from the drag of human interaction, there is
tremendous potential for creating autonomous communities of machines that require
only occasional interaction with, or reporting to, humans.
The conventional wisdom is that the expansive address space of IPv6 solves the IoT
problem of myriad end devices. But the host-to-host assumptions fossilized into the IP
protocol in the 1970s fundamentally limited its utility for the very edge of the IoT network.
As the Internet of Things expands exponentially over the coming years, it will be expected
to connect to devices that are cheaper, dumber, and more diverse. Traditional networking
thinking will fail for multiple reasons.
First, although IPv6 provides an address for these devices, the largest population of
these appliances, sensors, and actuators will lack the horsepower in terms of processors,
memory, and bandwidth to run the bloated IP protocol stack. It simply does not make
financial sense to burden a simple sensor with all of the protocol overhead needed for
host-to-host communications.
Second, the conventional implementation of IP protocols implies networking
knowledge on the part of device manufacturers: without centrally authorized MAC
IDs and end-to-end management, IP falls flat. Many of the hundreds of thousands of
manufacturers of all sizes worldwide building moisture sensors, streetlights, and toasters
lack the technical expertise to implement legacy network technology in traditional ways.
Third, the data needs of the IoT are completely different from the global Internet.
Most of the communications will be terse machine-to-machine interchanges that are
largely asymmetrical, with much more data flowing in one direction (sensor to server,
for example) than in the other. And in most cases, losing an individual message to an
intermittent or noisy connection will be no big deal. Unlike the traditional Internet,
which is primarily human-oriented (and thus averse to data loss), much of the Internet
of Things traffic will be analyzed over time, not acted upon immediately. Most of the
end devices will be essentially autonomous, operating independently whether anyone is
“listening” or not.
Fourth, when there are real-time sensing and response loops needed in the Internet
of Things, traditional network architectures with their round-trip control loops will be
problematic. Instead, a way would be needed to engender independent local control
loops managing the “business” of appliances, sensors, and actuators while still permitting
occasional “advise and consent” communications with central servers.
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xxv
■ IntroduCtIon
Finally, and most importantly, traditional IP peer-to-peer relationships lock out
much of the potential richness of the Internet of Things. There will be vast streams of
data flowing, many of which are unknown or unplanned. Only a publish/subscribe
architecture allows us to tap into this knowledge by discovering interesting data flows and
relationships. And only a publish/subscribe network can scale to the tremendous size of
the coming Internet of Things.
The only systems on earth that have ever scaled to the size and scope of the Internet
things are natural systems: pollen distribution, ant colonies, redwoods, and so on.
From examining these natural systems, I developed the concept of a three-tiered IoT
architecture described in this book: simple end devices; networking specialist propagator
nodes, and information-seeking integrator functions. In these pages, I’ll explain why
terse, self-classified messages, networking overhead isolated to a specialized tier of
devices, and the publish/subscribe relationships formed are the only way to fully distill
the power of the coming Internet of Things.
Francis daCosta
Santa Clara, California, 2013
xxvi
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Chapter 1
It’s Different Out Here
The emergence of the Internet of Things (IoT) destroys every precedent and preconceived
notion of network architecture. To date, networks have been invented by engineers
skilled in protocols and routing theory. But the architecture of the Internet of Things will
rely much more upon lessons derived from nature than traditional (and ossified, in my
opinion) networking schemes. This chapter will consider the reasons why the architecture
for the Internet of Things must incorporate a fundamentally different architecture from
the traditional Internet, explore the technical and economic foundations of this new
architecture, and finally begin to outline a solution to the problem.
Why the Internet of Things Requires
a New Solution
The architecture of the original Internet was created long before communicating with
billions of very simple devices such as sensors and appliances was ever envisioned.
The coming explosion of these much simpler devices creates tremendous challenges
for the current networking paradigm in terms of the number of devices, unprecedented
demands for low-cost connectivity, and impossibility of managing far-flung and diverse
equipment. Although these challenges are becoming evident now, they will pose a
greater, more severe problem as this revolution accelerates. This book describes a new
paradigm for the Internet of Things; but first, the problem.
It’s Networking on the Frontier
The IoT architecture requires a much more organic approach compared with traditional
networking because it represents an extreme frontier in communications. The scope and
breadth of the devices to be connected are huge, and the connections to the edges of the
network where these devices will be arrayed will be “low fidelity”: low-speed, lossy (where
attenuation and interference may cause lost but generally insignificant data, as depicted
in Figure 1-1), and intermittent. At the same time, much of the communication will be
machine-to-machine and in tiny snatches of data, which is completely the opposite of
networks such as the traditional Internet.
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CHAPTER 1 ■ IT’s DIffEREnT OuT HERE
Figure 1-1. The results of a lossy connection at an end point
Exploring the characteristics of the traditional Internet highlights the very different
requirements for the frontier of the emerging Internet of Things. Conventionally, data
networks have been over-provisioned; that is, built with more capacity than is typically
required for the amount of information to be carried. Even the nominally “best effort”
traditional Internet is massively over-provisioned in many aspects. If it weren’t, the
Internet couldn’t work: protocols such as TCP/IP are fundamentally based on a mostly
reliable connection between sender and receiver.
Because Moore’s Law provided a “safety valve” in the form of ever-increasing
processor speeds and memory capacities, even the explosive growth of the Internet
over the last two decades has not exceeded the capabilities of devices such as routers,
switches, and PCs, in part because they are continually replaced at 3- to 5-year intervals
with devices with more memory and processing power.
These devices are inherently multipurpose: they are designed with software,
hardware, and (often) human access and controls. What is important about this point
is that the addition of networking capability, usually in the form of protocol “stacks,” is
nearly free. The processor power, memory, and so on already exist as byproducts of the
devices’ prime functions.
But the vast majority of devices to be connected in the coming IoT are very
different. They will be moisture sensors, valve controls, “smart dust,” parking meters,
home appliances, and so on. These types of end devices almost never contain the
processors, memory, hard drives, and other features needed to run a protocol stack.
2
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CHAPTER 1 ■ IT’s DIffEREnT OuT HERE
These components are not necessary for the end devices’ prime function, and the costs
of provisioning them with these features would be prohibitive, or at least high enough
to exclude wide use of many applications that could otherwise be well served. So these
simpler devices are very much “on their own” at the frontier of the network.
Today’s Internet doesn’t reach this frontier; it simply isn’t cost-effective to do so, as
will be explored later. Thus, it isn’t possible to overprovision in the same way networks
have traditionally been built. On the frontier, devices in every aspect should therefore be
more self-sufficient, from their naming, to protocols, to security. There simply isn’t the
“safety net” of device performance, over-provisioning, a defined end-to-end connection,
and management infrastructure as in traditional networking.
It Will be (Even) Bigger than Expected
As a growing number of observers realize, one of the most important aspects of the
emerging Internet of Things is its incredible breadth and scope. Within a few years, devices
on the IoT will vastly outnumber human beings on the planet—and the number of devices
will continue to grow. Billions of devices worldwide will form a network unprecedented
in history. Devices as varied as soil moisture sensors, street lights, diesel generators, video
surveillance systems—even the legendary Internet-enabled toasters—will all be connected
in one fashion or another. See Figure 1-2 for some examples.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
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Figure 1-2. A wide variety of end devices will be connected to the Internet of Things
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