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    Automotive Engineering Fundamentals Richard Stone and Jeffrey K. Ball mAE - Internationa/ Warrendale. Pa.
    Allrightsreserved.Nopartofthispublicationmaybereproduced,storedinaretrievalsystem,ortransmitted,inanyformorbyanymeans,electronic,mechanical,photocopying,recording,orother-wise,withoutthepriorwrittenpermissionofSAE.Forpermissionandlicensingrequests,contact:SAEPermissions400CommonwealthDriveWarrendale,PA15096-0001USAE-mail:permissions@sae.orgTel:724-772-4028Fax:724-772-4891LibraryofCongressCataloging-in-PublicationDataStone,Richard.Automotiveengineeringfundamentals/RichardStoneandJeffreyK.Ball,p.cm.Includesbibliographicalreferencesandindex.ISBN0-7680-0987-11.Automobiles\p=m-\Designandconstruction.I.Ball,JeffreyK.II.Title.TL240.S8532004629.2'3\p=m-\dc222004041782SAE400CommonwealthDriveWarrendale,PA15096-0001USAE-mail:CustomerService@sae.orgTel:877-606-7323(insideUSAandCanada)724-776-4970(outsideUSA)Fax:724-776-1615Copyright\s=c\2004RichardStoneandJeffreyK.BallISBN0-7680-0987-1SAEOrderNo.R-199PrintedintheUnitedStatesofAmerica.
    Acknowledgments The following figures in this book first appeared in Introduction to Internal Combustion Engines, Third Edition, by Richard Stone, published by Palgrave Macmillan in 1999: Figures 2.2,2.4 through 2.7,2.9,2.10,2.12 through 2.15,2.17 through 2.20,2.23 through 2.28, and 2.30 through 2.32.
    Preface This book arose from a need for an automotive engineering textbook that included analysis, as well as descriptions of the hardware. Specifically, several courses in systems engineering use the automobile as a basis. Additionally, many universities are now involved in collegiate design competitions such as the SAE Mini Baja and Formula SAE competitions. This book should be helpful to such teams as an introductory text and as a source for further references. Given the broad scope of this topic, not every aspect of automotive engineering could be covered while keeping the text to a reasonable and affordable size. The book is aimed at third- to fourth-year engineering students and presupposes a certain level of engineering background. However, the courses for which this book was written are composed of engineering students from varied backgrounds to include mechanical, aeronau- tical, electrical, and astronautical engineering. Thus, certain topics that would be a review for mechanical engineering students may be an introduction to electrical engineers, and vice versa. Furthermore, because the book is aimed at students, it sometimes has been necessary to give only outline or simplified explanations. In such cases, numerous references have been made to sources of other information. Practicing engineers also should find this book useful when they need an overview of the subject, or when they are working on particular aspects of automotive engineering that are new to them. Automotive engineering draws on almost all areas of engineering: thermodynamics and com- bustion, fluid mechanics and heat transfer, mechanics, stress analysis, materials science, elec- tronics and controls, dynamics, vibrations, machine design, linkages, and so forth. However, automobiles also are subject to commercial considerations, such as economics, marketing, and sales, and these aspects are discussed as they arise. Again, to limit the scope of this project, several important automotive engineering concepts are notable for their absence. Two examples notable for their absence are manufacturing and structural design and crashworthiness. Neither of these topics was omitted because the topics were deemed unimportant. Rather, they did not fit the particular curriculum this book tar- geted. In short, topics that have been omitted are not intended to slight the importance of the topics, but choices had to be made in the scope of the text. The book has been organized to flow from the source of power (i.e., engine) through the drivetrain to the road. Chapter 1 is a brief and selective historical overview. Again, topics for Chapter 1 had to be limited to keep the scope reasonable, and the intent was to show the progression of automotive engineering over the last 100 years. Undoubtedly, readers will find several topics absent from the historical overview. Again, the absences are not intended to minimize the importance of any development, but to limit the size of Chapter 1.
    xiv I Automotive Engineering Fundamentals Chapter 2 contains an overview of the thermodynamic principles common to internal com- bustion engines and concludes with an extensive discussion of fuel cell principles and their systems. The differing operations of spark ignition engines and compression ignition engines are discussed in Chapters 3 and 4, respectively. Because many diesel engines now employ forced induction, the topic of turbo- and supercharging is discussed in Chapter 4 as well. Chapter 5 covers the ancillary systems associated with the engine and includes belt drives, air conditioning, and the starting and charging systems. Transmissions and drivelines are the topic of Chapter 6. This chapter includes discussion and analysis of both manual and automatic transmissions, driveshaft design, and four- and all- wheel-drive systems. The steering system is discussed in Chapter 7 and includes basic tech- niques for analyzing vehicle dynamics and rollover. The suspension system is discussed in Chapter 8, and basic models are provided as first-order analysis tools. The suspension system is another topic that is worthy of a textbook in itself, but Chapter 8 provides students and practicing engineers with several references to more detailed models and analysis techniques. Brakes and tires are the topic of Chapter 9, and Chapter 10 discusses vehicle aerodynamics. Because computer modeling is becoming increasingly important for the automotive engineer, Chapter 11 discusses matching transmissions to engines and provides a link to a computer model that is useful for predicting overall vehicle performance. Chapter 12 concludes the book with two case studies chosen to highlight the advances made in automotive engineering over the last century. The first case study is the Vauxhall 14-40, a vehicle that was studied extensively by Sir Harry Ricardo in the 1920s. As a point of comparison, the second case study is the Toyota Prius, which represents cutting-edge technology in a hybrid vehicle. The material in the book has been used by the authors in teaching an automotive systems analysis course and as part of a broad-based engineering degree course. These experiences have been invaluable in preparing this manuscript, as has been the feedback from the stu- dents. The material in the book comes from numerous sources. The published sources have been acknowledged, but of greater importance have been the conversations and discussions with colleagues and researchers involved in all areas of automotive engineering, especially when they have provided us with copies of relevant publications. We welcome criticisms or comments about the book, either concerning the details or the overall concept. Richard Stone Jeff Ball Autumn 2002
    Table of Contents ... Preface ............................................................................................................................... xi11 Acknowledgments .............................................................................................................. xv Chapter 1-Introduction and Overview ............................................................................... 1 1.1 Beginnings .................................................................................................... 1 1.2 Growth and Refinement ............................................................................... 6 1.3 Modern Development ..................................................................................... 9 1.4 Overview .................................................................................................... 16 Chapter 2 -Thermodynamics of Prime Movers ............................................................... 17 Introduction .................................................................................................. 17 Two- and Four-Stroke Engines ..................................................................... 17 Indicator Diagrams and Internal Combustion Engine Performance Parameters ............................................................................... 20 Otto and Diesel Cycle Analyses ................................................................... 23 2.4.1 The Ideal Air Standard Otto Cycle .................................................. 24 2.4.2 The Ideal Air Standard Diesel Cycle ............................................... 25 2.4.3 Efficiencies of Real Engines ........................................................... 30 Ignition and Combustion in Spark Ignition and Diesel Engines .................. 32 Sources of Emissions .................................................................................. 37 2.6.1 Simple Combustion Equilibrium ..................................................... 37 2.6.2 Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC) and Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) in Spark Ignition Engines ................................................................ 41 2.6.3 Unburned Hydrocarbons (HC), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx), and Moments ................................................................................ 68 2.10 Fuel Cells ...................................................................................................... 79 2.10.1 Solid Polymer Fuel Cells (SPFC) .................................................... 79 81 2.10.2 Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC) Efficiency 83 .................................... ............................................................ 2.10.2.1 Activation Losses and Particulates in Compression Ignition Engines .......................... .................................................................. 45 45 Fuel and Additive Requirements 2.7.1 Abnormal Combustion in Spark Ignition Engines .......................... 48 2.7.2 Gasoline and Diesel Additives ........................................................ 48 Gas Exchange Processes ............................................................................... 50 2.8.1 Valve Flow and Volumetric Efficiency ........................................ 50 2.8.2 Valve Timing ................................................................................... 55 58 2.8.3 Valve Operating Systems 2.8.4 Dynamic Behavior of Valve Gear ................................................... 60 64 Engine Configuration 64 2.9.1 Choosing the Number of Cylinders 2.9.2 Balancing of the Primary and Secondary Forces ................................................................................... ................................................. .................................................................
    vi Automotive Engineering Fundamentals 2.10.2.2 Fuel Crossover and Internal Currents 85 2.10.2.3 Ohmic Losses .................................................................. 87 2.10.2.4 Mass Transfer Losses 87 2.10.2.5 Overall Response 88 ...................................................... ............................................................ ............................. 2.10.3 Sources of Hydrogen for Solid Polymer Fuel Cells (SPFC) ............................................................................................. 88 2.10.3.1 Steam Reforming (SR) 89 2.10.3.2 Partial Oxidation (POX) Reforming 90 2.10.3.3 Autothermal Reforming (AR) 90 2.10.3.4 Carbon Monoxide Clean-Up and Solid Polymer Fuel Cell (SPFC) Operation on Reformed Fuel .................................................... ............................... ......................................... 2.10.3.5 Hydrogen Storage 2.10.4 Hydrogen Fuel Cell Systems 91 92 93 2.11 Concluding Remarks .................................................................................... 97 2.12 Problems 97 .............. ............................................................ ........................................................... ....................................................................................................... Chapter 3-Spark Ignition Engines Introduction 3.1 3.2 Spark Ignition and Ignition Timing Ignition System Overview 3.3 Mixture Preparation 3.4 Combustion System Design 3.5 Emissions Control Ignition Timing Selection and Control 3.4.1 Port Injection Combustion Systems 3.4.2 Direct Injection Spark lgnition (DISI) Combustion Systems 3.5.1 Development of the Three-Way Catalyst 3.5.2 Durability 3.5.3 Catalyst Light-Off 3.5.4 Lean-Bum NOx-Reducing Catalysts, "DENOx" ................................................................................. ................................................................................................ ............................................................ ............................................................. .......................................... .................................................................................... ......................................................................... ............................................... ......... ....................................................................................... ...................................... ....................................................................................... .......................................................................... .......................... 101 101 101 3.2.1 101 3.2.2 The Ignition Process ...................................................................... 105 3.2.3 107 109 113 113 116 120 121 124 125 126 127 127 128 132 3.7.1 132 3.7.2 Sensor Types ................................................................................. 134 3.7.2.1 Crankshaft SpeedPosition and Camshaft Position ....... 134 3.7.2.2 Throttle Position ............................................................ 136 3.7.2.3 Air Flow Rate ................................................................ 136 Inlet Manifold Absolute Pressure .................................. 137 3.7.2.4 3.7.2.5 Air Temperature and Coolant Temperature 137 3.7.2.6 Air-Fuel Ratio 137 3.7.2.7 Knock Detector ............................................................. 140 ................................ ................................................................................ ..................................................................... ................................................................................... 3.6.1 Variable Valve Timing and Induction Tuning 3.6.2 Supercharging ................... ............................................................... ........................................................................................... Introduction 3.6 Power Boosting 3.7 Engine Management Systems
    Table of Contents vii Ignition Timing 3.8 Engine Management System Functions 3.8.1 3.8.2 Air-Fuel Ratio Control 3.8.3 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Control 3.8.4 Additional Functions 3.8.5 Concluding Remarks on Engine Management Systems 142 142 143 144 144 146 3.9 Conclusions ................................................................................................ 147 3.10 Questions 147 ...................................................... .............................................................................. ................................................................... ................................... ..................................................................... ................ .................................................................................................... Chapter 4-Diesel Engines Introduction 4.4 Diesel Engine Emissions and Their Control 4.4.1 Diesel Engine Emissions 4.4.2 Diesel Engine Emissions Control 4.3.1 Pump-Line-Injector (PLI) Systems 4.3.2 Electronic Unit Injectors (EUI) 4.3.3 Common Rail (CR) Fuel Injection Systems 4.1 4.2 Direct and Indirect Injection Combustion Chambers 4.3 Fuel Injection Equipment 149 149 150 152 153 155 156 157 157 158 158 159 161 161 164 169 4.6 Diesel Engine Management Systems 172 4.7 Concluding Remarks 175 4.8 Examples 177 4.9 Problems ..................................................................................................... 185 .............................................................................................. ................................................................................................ ................................. ........................................................................... .............................................. ..................................................... .................................. ............................................... ............................................................... .................................................. ................................ ............................................................ ............................................................................................. ................................................................................... ............................................................ ............................................... .......................................................... .................................................................................. .................................................................................................... 4.4.2.1 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) 4.4.2.2 4.5 Turbocharging 4.5.1 4.5.2 Turbocharger Performance 4.5.3 Turbocharged Engine Performance Particulate Traps Introduction Chapter 5-Ancillaries Introduction 5.1 5.2 Lubrication System . 5.2.1 1 Anti-Friction Bearings 5.2.1.2 Guide Bearings 5.2.1.3 Thrust Bearings 5.2.1.4 Journal Bearings .................................................................................................... ................................................................................................ ..................................................................................... 189 189 189 5.2.1 Bearings ......................................................................................... 189 190 190 191 192 195 197 202 206 208 208 212 .................................................. .............................................................. ............................................................. ............................................................ .......................................................................... .................................................... ............................................................................ .......................................................................................... .................................................................................................. .............................................................................. ........................................................................................... 5.2.2 Engine Lubricants 5.2.3 Lubrication of Journal Bearings 5.4.1 Flat Belt Drives 5.4.2 V-Belts 5.3.1 Coolant 5.3 Vehicle Cooling Systems 5.4 Drive Belts
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