12 N. KOSTOV, MOBILE RADIO CHANNELS MODELING IN MATLAB Mobile Radio Channels Modeling in MATLAB Nikolay KOSTOV Department of Radio Engineering, Technical University of Varna, Student 1, 9010 Varna, Bulgaria n_kostov@mail.bg Abstract. In this paper, a MATLAB based approach for mobile radio channels modeling is presented. Specifically, the paper introduces the basic concepts for modeling flat fading channels in MATLAB by means of user-defined m- files. Typical small-scale fading channel models are deri- ved such as uncorrelated Rician fading channel and Ray- leigh fading channel with Doppler shift. Further, simple and useful MATLAB constructions for approximation of cumulative distribution functions (CDFs) and probability density functions (PDFs) are also given. Finally, a MAT- LAB based Monte Carlo simulation example is presented, which comprises performance estimation of phase shift keying (PSK) signaling over a Rician fading channel. Keywords MATLAB, fading channels, distribution, simulation. 1. Introduction In digital communication theory the most frequently assumed model for a transmission channel is the additive white Gaussian noise (AWGN) channel. However, for ma- ny communication systems the AWGN channel is a poor model, and one must resort to more precise and complica- ted channel models. One basic type of non-Gaussian chan- nel, which frequently occurs in practice, is the fading chan- nel. A typical example of such a fading channel is the mo- bile radio channel, where the small antennas of portable units pick up multipath reflections. Thus, the mobile chan- nel exhibits a time varying behavior in the received signal energy, which is called fading. Using MATLAB for digital communication systems simulation one has the advantage of exploiting the power- ful features of its Communications Toolbox along with a nice programming language. However, the Communica- tions Toolbox of MATLAB suffers from absence of proper mobile channel models. The only available channel model in the current Communications Toolbox 2.1 is the awgn m- file, which is appropriate for an AWGN channel simula- tion. So, the users of MATLAB should build appropriate channels (i.e., m-files) in their own to reach the desired simulation model. The paper is organized as follows. In Section 2, a brief introduction to fading channels is given. The basic concepts for modeling flat fading channels in MATLAB are presented in Section 3. In this section, example m-files are proposed to model different types of flat fading chan- nels. In Section 4, a MATLAB based Monte Carlo simula- tion example is presented, which describes the basic con- cepts of digital modulations performance estimation over fading channels. Finally, the concluding remarks are given in Section 5. 2. The Mobile Radio Channel The mobile radio channel is characterized by two types of fading effects: large-scale fading and small scale fading [1], [2]. Large-scale fading is the slow variation of the mean (distant-dependent) signal power over time. This depends on the presence of obstacles in the signal path and on the position of the mobile unit. The large-scale fading is assumed to be a slow process and is commonly modeled as having lognormal statistics. Small-scale fading is also cal- led Rayleigh or Rician fading because if a large number of reflective paths is encountered the received signal envelope is described by a Rayleigh or a Rician probability density function (PDF) [3]. The small-scale fading under conside- ration is assumed to be a flat fading (i.e., there is no inter- symbol interference). It is also assumed that the fading le- vel remains approximately constant for (at least) one sig- naling interval. With this model of fading channel the main difference with respect to an AWGN channel resides in the fact that fading amplitudes are now Rayleigh- or Rician- distributed random variables, whose values affect the signal amplitude (and, hence, the power) of the received signal. The fading amplitudes can be modeled by a Rician or a Rayleigh distribution, depending on the presence or ab- sence of specular signal component. Fading is Rayleigh if the multiple reflective paths are large in number and there is no dominant line-of-sight (LOS) propagation path. If there is also a dominant LOS path, then the fading is Ri- cian-distributed. The fading amplitude ri at the ith time in- stant can be represented as = ( x i + + r i y 2 i , 2) β (1) where β is the amplitude of the specular component and xi, yi are samples of zero-mean stationary Gaussian random 2. The ratio of specular to processes each with variance σ0 defuse energy defines the so-called Rician K-factor, which is given by 

RADIOENGINEERING, VOL. 12, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2003 13 2 2/ σβ=K 2 0 . (2) The best- and worst-case Rician fading channels associated with K-factors of K = ∞ and K = 0 are the Gaussian and Rayleigh channels with strong LOS and no LOS path, res- pectively. So, the Rayleigh fading channel can be conside- red as a special case of a Rician fading channel with K = 0. The Rician PDF is given by [3] f Rice r )( = [ exp − 2 ( r + r 2 σ 0 2 2 σβ 0 2/) ] I 0 r   β ≥  2 σ   0 r , (3) 0 where I0[.] is the zero-order modified Bessel function of the first kind. Now, if there is no dominant propagation path, K = 0 and I0[.] = 1 yielding the worst-case Rayleigh PDF f Rayleigh r )( = r 2 σ 0 [ exp − 2 r 2/ 2 σ 0 ] r ≥ 0 . (4) The Rician cumulative distribution function (CDF) takes the shape of [3] C Rice r 1)( −= exp ( − ) ∑∞ γ m = 0 m β  ⋅ r   I m r   β   2 σ   0 , (5) where γ = (K + r2 / 2σ0 2). Clearly, this formula is more dif- ficult to evaluate than the PDF of (3) due to the summation of an infinite number of terms. However, in practical terms it is sufficient to increase m to the value, where the last terms contribution becomes less than 0.1 percent. tionship between fm and the coherence time Tm of the chan- nel (i.e., the time over which the channel’s response to a sinusoid is essentially invariant) is given by [1] T m ≈ . 5.0 f m (7) The Doppler power spectral density S(f) of the mobile channel is often expressed as [4], [5] fS ( ) = 1 (1 − . f / f 2) m π f m (8) The above equality holds for frequency shifts of f in the range ±fm about the carrier frequency fc. Some important notes are in order here. First, the pri- mary factor, which affects the performance of digital com- munication systems in a mobile environment, is the small- scale fading. So, we will consider Rayleigh and Rician fa- ding channels from now on. Second, uncorrelated Ray- leigh- or Rician-distributed fading sequences can be obtai- ned directly by exploiting (1). Third, correlated fading se- quences can be obtained by means of “colored” Gaussian noise processes. A well-known approach is the so-called sum-of-sinusoids method in which a “colored” Gaussian noise is approximated by a finite sum of weighted and pro- perly designed sinusoids [5]-[8]. In this paper we opt on the modified sum-of-sinusoids method as described in [8], be- cause of its improved statistical properties and simple software realization. ) B d ( S M R e d u / t i l p m A 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 0 200 400 Samples 600 800 1000 Fig. 1. A typical Rician fading envelope for K = 5 dB. 3. Fading Generation in MATLAB 2( K + 1), where σ0 Let us first consider the generation of uncorrelated Rician-distributed fading sequences in MATLAB. The mean-squared value of the Rician distribution is known to 2 is the variance of the component be 2σ0 Gaussian noise processes in (1). Further, it is often required a Rician distribution with unit mean-squared value, i.e., E{r2} = 1, so that the signal power and the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) coincide. In order to meet the requirement E{r2} = 1, the equation (1) can be written in the form r i = ( x i + (2 2 K )2 K )1 + + 2 y i , (9) Having described the main fading statistics let us consider the effects of the Doppler frequency shift. Doppler shift from the carrier frequency fc occurs when the distance bet- ween the mobile receiver and the transmitter is changing. The magnitude of the Doppler frequency shift fm is determi- ned by f m = fv c c , (6) where ν is the mobile station velocity and c = 3⋅108 m/s is the speed of light. The Doppler frequency fm is often called fading bandwidth or fading fate of the channel. The rela- where now xi, yi are samples of zero-mean stationary Gaus- 2 = 1. So, the sian random processes each with variance σ0 desired Rician fading sequences can be generated accor- ding to (9) by using the MATLAB random number genera- tor randn, which produces normally distributed random numbers. The following MATLAB m-file rice_fading does the task. function r = rice_fading(Kdb, N, Mi) K = 10^(Kdb/10); const = 1/(2*(K+1)); x = randn(1,N); y = randn(1,N); r = sqrt(const*((x + sqrt(2*K)).^2 + y.^2)); rt = zeros(1,Mi*length(r)); ki = 1; 

14 N. KOSTOV, MOBILE RADIO CHANNELS MODELING IN MATLAB for i=1:length(r) rt(ki:i*Mi) = r(i); ki = ki+Mi; end r = rt; With this MATLAB code one can obtain both the “symbol- level” and “block-level” Rician fading channels for a pro- per chosen interpolation factor Mi. Also, Rayleigh fading samples can be obtained for Kdb = -inf. A typical Rician fading envelope is shown in Fig.1, where the fading ampli- tudes are plotted in decibels (about the root-mean-squared (RMS) value). Now, we will consider a MATLAB based approxima- tion of the Rician CDF. In the MATLAB code below, the Rician CDF is approximated from the derived fading samp- les according to the m-file rice_fading. Kdb=7; N=100000; Mi=1; r=rice_fading(Kdb,N,Mi); RdB = 20*log10(r); Rt = [min(RdB):max(RdB)]; for m = 1:length(Rt) fade = find(RdB < Rt(m)); Nm = length(fade); AF(m) = Nm/N; end semilogy(Rt,AF,'k-o'); grid; In this example the Rician CDF is derived by means of an iterative construction, where at each iteration the MAT- LAB functions find and length are used to obtain the num- ber of fades, which are below the specified threshold value. The obtained CDF is plotted in Fig. 2. 100 10-1 10-2 10-3 -20 logCDF -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 Amplitude/RMS (dB) Fig. 2. An approximated Rician CDF for K = 7 dB. The Rician CDF in Fig.2 is plotted on a logarithmic proba- bility scale, which allows us to expand the tail of the CDF, where for example the 10 dB fading margin overload pro- bability is seen to be approximately 10-2. The next MATLAB code is an example construction for comparing an approximated Rayleigh PDF with the cor- responding analytical PDF given by (4). The obtained re- sult is shown in Fig. 3. N = 100000; x = randn(1, N); y = randn(1, N); r = sqrt(0.5*(x.^2 + y.^2)); step = 0.1; range = 0:step:3; h = hist(r, range); fr_approx = h/(step*sum(h)); fr = (range/0.5).*exp(-range.^2); plot(range, fr_approx,'ko', range, fr,'k'); grid; approximated PDF analytical PDF 0.9 0.8 0.7 0.6 0.5 0.4 0.3 0.2 0.1 ) r ( f 0 0 0.5 1 1.5 r 2 2.5 3 Fig. 3. The approximated and analytical Rayleigh PDF for σ0 2 = 0.5. In the above code the approximated Rayleigh PDF (deno- ted as fr_approx) is derived in MATLAB by means of the useful function hist (the histogram function). Then, a two-dimensional plot is used (by means of the MATLAB function plot) to compare the approximated PDF with the analytical PDF (denoted as fr) over a range of interest. Finally, we will consider the generation of correlated Rayleigh-distributed fading samples by using the modified sum-of-sinusoids method as described in [8]. The quadra- ture components of Rayleigh fading process are given by tx )( = ty )( = 2 M 2 M M cos( ∑ n 1 = φαω n cos dt + n M ∑ n 1 = cos( ϕαω n sin dt + n ) , ) , (10) (11) with α n = n 2 θππ n +− M 4 , n = ,2,1 ..., M , (12) where ωd is the maximum angular Doppler frequency, φn, ϕn and θn are statistically independent and uniformly dis- tributed on [–π, π) for all n. The following m-file, named ray_doppler, exploits equations (9)-(12) for correlated Rayleigh-distributed fading samples generation in MAT- LAB. function r = ray_doppler(fm, M, dt, N) T = N*dt-dt; t = 0:dt:T; c = sqrt(2/M); w = 2*pi*fm; x = 0; y = 0; for n = 1:M alpha = (2*pi*n-pi+(2*pi*rand-pi))/(4*M); ph1 = 2*pi*rand - pi; ph2 = 2*pi*rand - pi; x = x + c*cos(w*t*cos(alpha) + ph1); 

RADIOENGINEERING, VOL. 12, NO. 4, DECEMBER 2003 15 y = y + c*cos(w*t*sin(alpha) + ph2); end r = sqrt(x.^2 + y.^2)/sqrt(2); Input arguments of the m-file ray_doppler are the maxi- mum Doppler frequency (denoted as fm) in Hz, the number of sinusoids (denoted as M), the time step (denoted as dt) and the desired fading sequence length (denoted as N). All values of φn, ϕn and θn are obtained by means of the MAT- LAB random number generator rand, which produces uni- formly distributed random numbers. Using proper values for M (M should be not less than eight [8]), N and dt, one can obtain the desired Doppler spread. The considered approach can be extended with minor additions for correla- ted Rician fading samples generation. 4. Monte Carlo Simulation Example Let us consider a transmission of digitally modulated symbols over an uncorrelated flat Rician fading channel. Then, if si denotes the transmitted symbol at the ith time instant, the received symbol vi can be expressed as v i +⋅= sr i i n i , (13) where {ri} denotes a sequence of independent Rician-dis- tributed random variables and ni’s are samples of a comp- lex, zero-mean white Gaussian noise process with one-si- ded power spectral density N0. A MATLAB m-file, named psk_rice, is given below, wherein the performance of pha- se shift keying (PSK) signaling over such a fading channel is simulated. It should be mentioned that the simulation example requires the Communications Toolbox of MAT- LAB and the m-file rice_fading in order to run. function BER = psk_rice(logEbNo,M,Kdb) k = log2(M); EbNolin = 10.^(logEbNo/10) Fd = 1; Fs = 1; Nit = 100000; Ns = 1000; Tstop = 100; for it_snr = 1:length(EbNolin) nstd = sqrt(1/(2*k*EbNolin(it_snr))); bit_err = 0; for it = 1:Nit a = randint(Ns,1,M); s = dmodce(a,Fd,Fs,'psk',M); r = rice_fading(Kdb,Ns,1); v_r = s.*r'; v = v_r + nstd*(randn(Ns,1) + ... j*randn(Ns,1)); z = ddemodce(v, Fd, Fs,'psk',M); errors = biterr(a,z); bit_err = bit_err + errors; if bit_err >= Tstop break end end B end semilogy(logEbNo, BER,'k'); xlabel('EbNo(dB)'); ylabel('BER'); grid; Input arguments of the m-file psk_rice are the vector logEbNo of energy-per-bit to noise power spectral density values (in decibels), the PSK constellation size M and the ER(it_snr) = bit_err/(it*Ns*k); dmodce (baseband Rician K-factor Kdb in decibels. The Communications Toolbox functions used in the simulation example are: randint (generate matrix of uniformly distributed random integers), digital modulator), ddemodce (digital baseband demodulator) and biterr (compute number of bit errors and bit error rate). Notice how the for-end loops are used in the simulation. The outer loop is used for signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) points enume- ration, while (for each SNR point) the inner loop iterates a finite number of frames of PSK symbols until a threshold value of bit errors is reached (thanks to the if-break-end construction) or the total number of frames is executed. Finally, the estimated bit error rate (BER) is plotted versus the SNR points by means of the MATLAB function semilogy. It should be mentioned that the simulation accu- racy is determined by the number of errors observed. A rule of thumb is that after 100 errors the estimated BER is within a factor 1.3 of the true BER (with approximately 99 percent confidence). So, a threshold value of 100 bit errors is used in the simulation for early stopping the inner loop iterations. One can also apply a set of SNR-dependent threshold values to avoid a time-consuming simulation. The simulation result is shown in Fig.4 for quadrature pha- se shift keying (QPSK) signaling and two different Rician K-factors (given in decibels). 100 10-1 10-2 R E B 10-3 10-4 0 Kdb = -inf Kdb = 5 5 10 Eb/No (dB) 15 20 25 Fig. 4. Bit error rate performance of QPSK signaling over an uncorrelated Rician fading channel. 5. Conclusions In this paper, an approach to demonstrate mobile radio channels modeling in MATLAB is presented. The basic types of small-scale fading channel models are derived and simulated using MATLAB. The developed channel models can be extended with minor additions to model other types of fading channels (for example, a correlated Rician fading channel). Further, simple and useful MATLAB constructions for approximation of CDFs and PDFs are also given. Finally, the presented Monte Carlo simulation example can be used as a framework for performance estimation of various digital modulation schemes in MATLAB. 

16 References [1] SKLAR, B. Rayleigh fading channels in mobile digital communica- tion systems, Part I: Characterization. IEEE Communications Maga- zine, 1997, vol. 35, no. 7, p. 90 - 100. [2] SUZUKI, H. A statistical model for urban radio propagation. IEEE Transactions on Communications, 1977, vol. COM-25, no. 7, p. 673 to 680. [3] PROAKIS, J. G. Digital communications. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1989. [4] CLARKE, R. H. A statistical theory of mobile-radio reception. Bell Systems Technical Journal, 1968, vol. 47, no. 6, p. 957 - 1000. [5] JAKES, W. C. Microwave mobile communications. New York: Wiley, 1974. [6] PATZOLD, M., KILLAT, U., LAUE, F., LI, Y. On the statistical properties of deterministic simulation models for mobile fading channels. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 1998, vol. 47, no. 1, p. 254 - 269. N. KOSTOV, MOBILE RADIO CHANNELS MODELING IN MATLAB [7] HOEHER, P. A statistical discrete-time model for the WSSUS multi- path channel. IEEE Transactions on Vehicular Technology, 1992, vol. 41, no. 4, p. 461 - 468. [8] ZHENG, Y., R., XIAO, C. Improved models for the generation of multiple uncorrelated Rayleigh fading waveforms. IEEE Communi- cations Letters, 2002, vol. 6, no. 6, p. 256 - 258. About Author Nikolay KOSTOV was born in Varna, Bulgaria, on Au- gust 7, 1969. He received Dipl. Eng. and Dr. Eng. degrees from the National Military University of Veliko Turnovo, Bulgaria, in 1993 and 1999, respectively. He joined the Radio Engineering Department at Technical University of Varna, Bulgaria, in March 2001, where he is currently ser- ving as an Assistant Professor. His research interests inclu- de source/channel coding, modulation techniques, and communications over fading channels. Book Review: Multimedia Communications. Multimedia Technology and Watermarking Dušan Levický, Technical University of Košice The monograph Multimedia communications written by Dušan Levický, a professor of Electrical Engineering at the Technical University of Košice tries to cover a full spectrum of multimedia systems, methods and standards. Many conferences and journals have been devoted to the multimedia in several last years. Numerous standards, coding methods and other techniques have been developed. It is not easy to get desired detailed information from this area or to obtain a general overview on multimedia. We suppose, this could be the main reason for writing the mo- nograph. The first three chapters are devoted to the multimedia systems, multimedia services and to the classification of multimedia signals. Chapter 4 presents basics of compression methods for multimedia. The short but important last section of the Chapter 4 contains evaluation methods of the decompres- sed information quality. International digital facsimile co- ding standards are described in Chapter 5. Chapters 6, 7 and 8 present coding of pictures and image sequences. Existing digital video-coding standards are summari- zed in Chapter 9. Chapter 10 gives an introduction to speech-coding standards, including standards for mobile communications. Audio-coding standards are given in Chapter 11. Chapter 12 is devoted to watermarking digital image and video data. The book contains list of references, list of standards and a useful index. It seems, the reviewed book successfully fills the gap in the Slovak and Czech literature. Reviewers can recom- mend Multimedia communications to any engineer, techni- cian, student and researcher interested in this subject. LEVICKÝ, D. Multimedia Communications. Multimedia technology and Watermarking. Košice: Elfa s.r.o., 2003. Address of the bookseller: Elfa, s.r.o. , Letná 9, 04200 Košice, Slovakia, knihy@elfa.sk Price: 149 SK Reviewers: Vladimír Šebesta and Stanislav Hanus