Academic Writing for Graduate Students: Essential Tasks and Skills.pdf

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Academic Writing for Graduate Students

Contents Introduction to the Third Edition UNIT ONE: An Approach to Academic Writing Audience Purpose and Strategy Organization Style Language Focus: The Vocabulary Shift—Verbs Language Focus: The Vocabulary Shift—Nouns and Other Parts of Speech Language Focus: Other Stylistic Features Flow Language Focus: Linking Words and Phrases Presentation Positioning UNIT TWO: General-Speciﬁc and Speciﬁc-General Texts Opening with General Statements Opening with Statistics Opening with Deﬁnitions Writing a Deﬁnition Some Common Ways to Deﬁne in Academic Writing Language Focus: Verbs in Deﬁning and Naming A Brief Look at the Elements of Formal Sentence Deﬁnitions Extended Deﬁnitions Variations in Deﬁnitions Discussions of Schools of Thought Speciﬁc-to-General Organization UNIT THREE: Problem, Process, and Solution The Structure of Problem-Solution Texts Language Focus: Mid-Position Adverbs Procedures and Processes Language Focus: -ing Clauses to Indicate Cause and Effect Language Focus: Passive Voice Flow of Ideas in a Process Description vii 1 4 6 8 14 17 20 22 30 37 48 53 55 61 64 65 65 67 68 71 74 84 89 92 100 101 105 108 115 119 125 iii Academic Writing for Graduate Students, 3rd Edition: Essential Skills and Tasks John M. Swales & Christine B. Feak http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=2173936 Michigan ELT, 2012

iv CONTENTS Language Focus: Indirect Questions Introducing the Solution UNIT FOUR: Data Commentary Strength of Claim Structure of Data Commentary Location Elements and Summaries Language Focus: Verbs in Indicative and Informative Location Statements Language Focus: Linking as Clauses Highlighting Statements Language Focus: An Introduction to Qualiﬁcations and Strength of Claim Language Focus: Speciﬁc Ways of Moderating or Qualifying a Claim 133 137 139 139 144 147 149 152 156 156 159 165 Organization 167 Language Focus: Comparisons Concluding a Commentary 172 Language Focus: Dealing with Unexpected Outcomes or “Problems” 174 177 Dealing with Graphs Dealing with Chronological Data 181 183 Language Focus: Prepositions of Time UNIT FIVE: Writing Summaries Considerations before Writing a Summary Some Notes on Plagiarism Paraphrasing Careful Use of Synonyms Language Focus: Identifying the Source Language Focus: Summary Reminder Phrases Syntheses of More than One Source Language Focus: Showing Similarities and Differences UNIT SIX: Writing Critiques Book Reviews Language Focus: Stating Opinions Language Focus: Evaluative Language Evaluating a Published Article Language Focus: Unreal Conditionals Language Focus: Evaluative Language Revisited 188 189 196 202 206 211 216 220 225 228 230 239 242 248 260 262 Academic Writing for Graduate Students, 3rd Edition: Essential Skills and Tasks John M. Swales & Christine B. Feak http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=2173936 Michigan ELT, 2012

CONTENTS Critical Reading Language Focus: Beginning the Critique Language Focus: Inversions Reaction Papers Language Focus: Non-Standard Quotation Marks (Scare Quotes) A Few Thoughts on Manuscript Reviews for a Journal UNIT SEVEN: Constructing a Research Paper I Types of Journal Publication Short Communications (SCs) in Disciplines that Report Fieldwork Longer Research Papers Methods Sections Language Focus: Linking Phrases in Methods Sections Results Sections Language Focus: Another Look at Location Statements Language Focus: Special Verb Agreements Language Focus: Making Comparisons UNIT EIGHT: Constructing a Research Paper II Introductions Creating a Research Space Language Focus: Citation and Tense Language Focus: Negative Openings in Move 2 Language Focus: Purpose Statements and Tense Discussion Sections Language Focus: Levels of Generalization Language Focus: Expressions of Limitation Unﬁnished Business Appendixes Appendix One: The Grammar of Deﬁnitions Appendix Two: Articles in Academic Writing Appendix Three: Academic English and Latin Phrases References Index v 265 268 269 270 274 276 277 278 280 284 289 301 305 309 314 316 327 327 331 344 350 356 363 371 372 378 390 390 395 403 407 415 Academic Writing for Graduate Students, 3rd Edition: Essential Skills and Tasks John M. Swales & Christine B. Feak http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=2173936 Michigan ELT, 2012

Introduction to the Third Edition The Changing Scene The second edition of Academic Writing for Graduate Students (henceforth AWG) was published in 2004. In the ensuing eight years, many of the important trends we identiﬁed in that edition’s Introduction—in North America and elsewhere—have developed further. Email and the internet are now nearly universal, especially since the spread of wireless technologies. Graduate degrees available or partly available online have been increasing rapidly. The American tradition of requiring doctoral students to take courses has been adopted and adapted by more and more countries. Co- authorship of papers written by graduate students and their professors and/or advisors continues to increase. Doctoral students are attending and presenting at more conferences and are doing so at earlier stages in their PhD programs. As a result of these trends, graduate students and junior researchers are much more networked than they were 20 years ago; indeed, the 2010 book by Lillis and Curry, Academic Writing in a Global Context, provides compelling evidence of the advantages today of operating within and through networks. Several other scholars have also been emphasizing that academic writing today is much more of a collaborative activity than it used to be. The growth of research groups, writing circles, close mentoring, and email have all contributed to our growing understanding that writing is increasingly embedded in social and professional contexts (e.g., Bhatia, 2004; Molle & Prior, 2008). Although this book focuses on academic writ- ing, we also recognize that it is often mediated by academic speech. Further, those with overall responsibility for graduate education, such as graduate schools, are offering more workshops for graduate students, many of whom are often concerned with strengthening communication skills in some way. Finally, the traditional distinction between native and non- native speakers of English continues to erode. In the research world, in par- ticular, there are today increasing numbers of “expert users” of English who are not traditional native speakers of that language. This has given rise, in recent years, to the English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) phenomenon whereby these expert users, as well as those with lower English language proﬁciency, communicate with each other on matters of research, scholarly, or business vii Academic Writing for Graduate Students, 3rd Edition: Essential Skills and Tasks John M. Swales & Christine B. Feak http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=2173936 Michigan ELT, 2012

viii INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION interest. One further piece of evidence for this trend is the increasing spread of English-medium post-secondary instruction at universities in non-Anglo- phone countries. When AWG was originally published in 1994, the number of courses in academic writing for graduate students was both rather small and largely restricted to entering international graduate students. Nearly 20 years later, both the number and range of these courses have increased as graduate stu- dents move around the world in growing numbers and as recognition grows that increasing numbers of native speakers of English would welcome, for various reasons, some assistance with their academic writing. As part and parcel of these developments, research in English for Academic Purposes (EAP) has advanced, partly through dissertation-level studies on various aspects of academic discourse; leading examples of this trend are China, Iran, Italy, and Spain. It is clearly time for a third edition! In the years between the previous edition and this one, there have also been changes in our personal circumstances. John ofﬁcially retired in 2007, but he maintains a university ofﬁce, interacts with doctoral students, and keeps busy as a researcher, materials writer, reviewer, guest lecturer, and conference speaker. Overall, he feels he is keeping up to date with events in the global world of EAP. Meanwhile, Chris has taken over and further developed the English Language Institute’s advanced courses in dissertation writing and writ- ing for publication. She also gives frequent workshops, both at Michigan and elsewhere, and is increasingly invited to speak at international conferences. Approach and Organization A third edition of an EAP textbook usually indicates that the ﬁrst two have enjoyed some success. And this has been the case with AWG. As a result, we have largely retained the basic approach of the previous editions. This approach can be spelled out in this way. • The book has evolved out of both research and teaching experience. • It is as much concerned with developing academic writers as it is with improving academic texts. • The book is conceived as providing assistance with writing part-genres (problem-solutions, methods, and discussions) and genres (book reviews and research papers). • It is targeted at graduate students (although we have heard of its suc- cessful use with advanced undergraduates). These graduate students Academic Writing for Graduate Students, 3rd Edition: Essential Skills and Tasks John M. Swales & Christine B. Feak http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=2173936 Michigan ELT, 2012

INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION ix may variously be internationals with limited experience writing aca- demic English, “proﬁcient users” with a ﬁrst language other than Eng- lish, and native speakers of English. The last group in particular may not need to pay as much attention to the Language Focus sections in this volume. • The general approach is analytical and rhetorical: Users are asked to apply their analytical skills to the discourses of their chosen disciplines and to explore how effective academic writing is achieved. In effect, we are strong believers in this cycle, which is fashionably known as rhetor- ical consciousness raising: Achievement Analysis Acquisition Awareness • The tasks and activities are richly varied, ranging from small-scale lan- guage points to issues of how graduate students can best “position” themselves as junior researchers. • The book is fairly fast paced, opening with a basic orientation and clos- ing with writing an article for publication. • With the help of the accompanying Commentary, scholars and students should be able to use this volume proﬁtably on their own. We have also largely retained the original eight-unit organization because nearly all the reports we have received suggest that users are happy with it. • The ﬁrst four units are essentially preparatory; they pave the way for the more genre-speciﬁc activities in later units. • Unit One presents an overview of the considerations involved in suc- cessful academic writing, with a deliberate stress on early exposure to the concept of positioning. Academic Writing for Graduate Students, 3rd Edition: Essential Skills and Tasks John M. Swales & Christine B. Feak http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=2173936 Michigan ELT, 2012

x INTRODUCTION TO THE THIRD EDITION • Units Two and Three deal with two overarching patterns in English expository prose: the movement from general to speciﬁc and the move- ment from problem to solution. • Unit Four acts as a crucial link between the earlier and later units since it deals with how to handle interpretation and discussion of data. • Units Five and Six then deal with writing summaries and critiques, respectively. • Finally, Units Seven and Eight deal with constructing a real research paper—that is, one that attempts to make an original contribution to the ﬁeld. Changes in the Text Within this retained basic approach and structure, there are, however, also a number of important changes. Many of the older sets of data and older texts have either been updated or replaced. Even so, in response to user pressure, we have kept a number of instructor “favorites,” such as the test-retest data in Unit Four. Although the range of disciplines represented remains large, we have, again in response to user requests, somewhat increased the material from the hard sciences and Engineering. Among other changes, an impor- tant one has been a sharp reduction in the attention to the grammar of def- initions in Unit Two, which is now relegated to an appendix. The space created has allowed for a new closing section to this unit that deals with the kinds of speciﬁc-general texts that can be found in the humanities. Throughout, new ﬁndings (both published and our own) from discourse analysis have been incorporated. Another important innovation has been our use of the Michigan Corpus of Upper-level Student Papers (MICUSP), which became freely available in 2009 (see www.elicorpora.info/). This cor- pus consists of an electronically searchable collection of 830 top-rated stu- dent papers at the University of Michigan, representing 16 disciplines and consisting of work submitted by ﬁnal year undergraduates and graduate stu- dents in their ﬁrst three years. AWG has been designed as a ﬁrst course in graduate-level writing and is most suited to the ﬁrst two years of graduate education. For the later course work, there is English in Today’s Research World: A Writing Guide (ETRW), published by the University of Michigan Press in 2000. This has been replaced by some more specialized mini-volumes, all published by the Uni- versity of Michigan Press (see www.press.umich.edu/esl/compsite/ETRW/). Academic Writing for Graduate Students, 3rd Edition: Essential Skills and Tasks John M. Swales & Christine B. Feak http://www.press.umich.edu/titleDetailDesc.do?id=2173936 Michigan ELT, 2012

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