Atmospheric science -- an introductory survey.pdf

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P732951-Prelims

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P732951-Prelims.qxd 12/16/05 10:54 AM Page i Atmospheric Science Second Edition

P732951-Prelims.qxd 12/16/05 10:54 AM Page ii This is Volume 92 in the INTERNATIONAL GEOPHYSICS SERIES A series of monographs and textbooks Edited by RENATA DMOWSKA, DENNIS HARTMANN, and H. THOMAS ROSSBY A complete list of books in this series appears at the end of this volume.

P732951-Prelims.qxd 12/16/05 10:54 AM Page iii Atmospheric Science An Introductory Survey Second Edition John M. Wallace • Peter V. Hobbs University of Washington AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier

P732951-Prelims.qxd 12/16/05 10:54 AM Page iv Acquisitions Editor: Jennifer Helé Project Manager: Jeff Freeland Marketing Manager: Linda Beattie Marketing Coordinator: Francine Ribeau Cover Art Direction: Cate Rickard Barr Text Design: Julio Esperas Composition: Integra Software Services Private Limited Cover Printer: Transcontinental Printing Interior Printer: Transcontinental Printing Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier 30 Corporate Drive, Suite 400, Burlington, MA 01803, USA 525 B Street, Suite 1900, San Diego, California 92101-4495, USA 84 Theobald’s Road, London WC1X 8RR, UK This book is printed on acid-free paper. Copyright © 2006, Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone: (+44) 1865 843830, fax: (+44) 1865 853333, E-mail: permissions@elsevier.com. You may also complete your request on-line via the Elsevier homepage (http:///elsevier.com), by selecting “Support & Contact” then “Copyright and Permission” and then “Obtaining Permissions.” Cover Photo Credits: Noboru Nakamura’s drawing, bearing the Latin inscription “Here watch the powerful machine of nature, formed by the air and other elements”, was inspired by mankind’s long-standing fascination with weather and climate. Some of the products of this machine are represented by the other images (left to right): annual mean sea surface temperature (courtesy of Todd Mitchell), a single cell thunderstorm cell over a tropical Pacific atoll (courtesy of Art Rangno), a supercell thunderstorm over Kansas (courtesy of Chris Kridler), and Antarctic sea ice (courtesy of Miles McPhee). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Wallace, John M. (John Michael), 1940– Atmospheric science : an introductory survey / John M. Wallace, Peter V. Hobbs.—2nd ed. p. cm. ISBN 0-12-732951-X 1. Atmosphere—Textbooks. 2. Atmospheric physics—Textbooks. 3. Atmospheric chemistry—Textbooks. 4. Meteorology—Textbooks. I. Hobbs, Peter Victor, 1936–2005 II. Title. QC861.3.W35 2006 551.5—dc22 British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 13: 978-0-12-732951-2 ISBN 10: 0-12-732951-X 2005034642 For information on all Academic Press Publications visit our Web site at www.books.elsevier.com Printed in Canada 06 07 08 09 10 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 Working together to grow libraries in developing countries www.elsevier.com | www.bookaid.org | www.sabre.org

P732951-Prelims.qxd 12/16/05 10:54 AM Page v In Memory of Peter V. Hobbs (1936–2005) I am the daughter of Earth and Water, And the nursling of the Sky; I pass through the pores of the ocean and shores; I change, but I cannot die. For after the rain when with never a stain The pavilion of Heaven is bare, And the winds and sunbeams with their convex gleams Build up the blue dome of air, I silently laugh at my own cenotaph, And out of the caverns of rain, Like a child from the womb, like a ghost from the tomb, I arise and unbuild it again. PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY The Cloud v

P732951-Prelims.qxd 12/16/05 10:54 AM Page vi

P732951-Prelims.qxd 12/16/05 10:54 AM Page vii Contents Preface to the Second Edition Preface to the First Edition 1 Introduction and Overview 1.1 Scope of the Subject and Recent Highlights 1.2 Some Definitions and Terms of Reference 1.3 A Brief Survey of the Atmosphere 1.3.1 Optical Properties 1.3.2 Mass 1.3.3 Chemical Composition 1.3.4 Vertical structure 1.3.5 Winds 1.3.6 Precipitation 1.4 What’s Next? Exercises 2 The Earth System 2.1 Components of the Earth System 2.1.1 The Oceans 2.1.2 The Cryosphere 2.1.3 The Terrestrial Biosphere 2.1.4 The Earth’s Crust and Mantle 2.1.5 Roles of Various Components of the Earth System in Climate 2.2 The Hydrologic Cycle 2.3 The Carbon Cycle 2.3.1 Carbon in the Atmosphere 2.3.2 Carbon in the Biosphere 2.3.3 Carbon in the Oceans 2.3.4 Carbon in the Earth’s Crust 2.4 Oxygen in the Earth System 2.4.1 Sources of Free Oxygen 2.5 A Brief History of Climate and the Earth System 2.5.1 Formation and Evolution of the Earth System 2.5.2 The Past 100 Million Years xi xv 1 1 3 6 6 7 8 9 12 19 21 22 25 25 25 32 35 37 38 38 41 42 42 44 44 45 46 48 48 51 2.5.3 The Past Million Years 2.5.4 The Past 20,000 Years 2.6 Earth: The Habitable Planet Exercises 3 Atmospheric Thermodynamics 3.1 Gas Laws 3.1.1 Virtual Temperature 3.2 The Hydrostatic Equation 3.2.1 Geopotential 3.2.2 Scale Height and the Hypsometric Equation 3.2.3 Thickness and Heights of Constant Pressure Surfaces 3.2.4 Reduction of Pressure to Sea Level 3.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 3.3.1 Joule’s Law 3.3.2 Specific Heats 3.3.3 Enthalpy 3.4 Adiabatic Processes 3.4.1 Concept of an Air Parcel 3.4.2 The Dry Adiabatic Lapse Rate 3.4.3 Potential Temperature 3.4.4 Thermodynamic Diagrams 3.5 Water Vapor in Air 3.5.1 Moisture Parameters 3.5.2 Latent Heats 3.5.3 Saturated Adiabatic and Pseudoadiabatic Processes 3.5.4 The Saturated Adiabatic Lapse Rate 3.5.5 Equivalent Potential Temperature and Wet-Bulb Potential Temperature 3.5.6 Normand’s Rule 3.5.7 Net Effects of Ascent Followed by Descent 3.6 Static Stability 3.6.1 Unsaturated Air 3.6.2 Saturated Air 3.6.3 Conditional and Convective Instability 52 54 56 58 63 63 66 67 68 69 71 72 72 74 75 75 76 77 77 77 78 79 80 84 84 84 85 86 86 88 88 91 91 vii

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