1995年专业英语八级考试真题.doc

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1995 年专业英语八级考试真题 [B]recommendingthetutorsystem. [D]carriedoutthenecessaryprivatestudy. [B]Nosmokingoncampus. [D]Noconsumablesinclassrooms. Accordingtothespeakerwhichofthefollowingisarule? Thegeneraltoneofthistalkcanbedescribedas[A]impartial.[B]dominthing. TESTFORENGLISHMAJORS(1995) ----GRADEEIGHT-- PARTILISTENINGCOMPREHENSION (30MIN.) InSectionA,BandCyouwillheareverythingonceonly.Listencarefullyandthenanswerthequ estionsthatfollowMarkthecorrectresponseforeachquestiononyourColoredAnswerSheet. SECTIONATALK Questions1to5refertothetalkinthissection.Attheendofthetalkyouwillbegiven15secon dstoanswereachofthefollowingfivequestions.Nowlistentothetalk.1.Thespeakeris [A]explainingthecreditsystem. [C]introducingashortsummercourse.[D]talkingtosomecollegestudents. 2.Astudentwitha75%attendancerecordwillonlyreceiveacertificateifshehas[A]complet edtheindividualassignments.[B]submittedgoodreasonsforthis. [C]undertakentherequiredgroupwork. 3.Inthespeaker'sopinion,themethodofevaluationis[A]moredemanding.[B]underreview. [C]betterthanbefore.ID]optional. 4. [A]Nocookinginrooms. [C]Noaccommodationforfriends. 5. [C]authoritative.[D]condescending. SECTIONBCONVERSATION Questions6to10arebasedonaconversationbetweenPaulineandherfriend.Attheendoftheco nversationyouwillbegiven13secondstoanswereachofthefollowingquestions.Nowlistent otheconversation. 6. [A]herticketwasnotconfirmed.[B]shebookedherticketatthewrongplace. [C]shedidn'thavetherightdocuments. 7.Whichofthefollowingdidnotoccur?Pauline [A]visitedoneofLondon'sparks.[B]wenttotheairportbytaxi. [C]contactedtheairlinebytelephone.[D]stayedthenightinLondon.8.InIbiza,Paulineto okataxibecause [A]shehadtoomuchluggage. [C]theplanewasdelayed. 9.Paulinelearnedherfriend'saddressin[A]Newcastle.[B]Gatwick. Luton. 10.Fromtheconversationwegettheimpress:[A]someofficialagenciesinLondonare[B]taxi driversabroadalwaysovercharge. [C]customsformalitiesinBritainareflexible.[D]travelagentstendtomisinformpeople. SECTIONCNEWSBROADCAST Questions11and12arebasedonthefollowendofthenewsitem,youwillbegiven30secondstoan swerthetwoquestions.Nowlistentothenews. [B]nobodycametopickherup. [D]herfriend'shomewasfaraway. Paulinefailedtocatchtheflightbecause [D]hervisahadrunout. [C]London. [D]

[D]rainy. (4) . (7) [B]asculptor. 11.Theweatherontheweddingdaywas [A]cold.[B]warm. [C]foggy. 12.Theweddingreceptionwasheld [A]inEdinburgh.[B]onDeeside.[C]atBalmoral.[D]nearYork. Questions13to15arebasedonthefollowingnewsfromtheVOA.Attheendofthenewsitem,youwi llbegiven45secondstoanswerthethreequestions.Nowlistentothenews. 13.RachelWhitereadis [A]atraditionalartist. [C]aninteriordecorator.[D]ahousedesigner. 14.Whichofthefollowingwasnotconsideredforthisyear'sTurnerPrize?[A]Amodelcontain ingalargeamountofrice. [B] Asculptureshowingtheinsideofoldhouses. [C] Adisplaymadeupoffishandglass. [D] Asculptureinvolvingcoloredneonlights. 15.WhatmadeRachelWhitereadunhappywasthefactthat[A]sheknewhercreationwastobepull eddown. [B]shegottheprizeastheworstartist. [C]shewasridiculedandmockedbynewspapermen.[D]shewasregardedasahypocriteandthewo rstartist. SECTIONDNOTE-TAKINGANDGAP-FILLING Inthissectionyouwillhearamini-lecture.YouwillhearthelectureONCEONLY.Whilelisten ingtothelecture,takenotesontheimportantpoints.Yournoteswillnotbemarked,butyouwi llneedthemtocompletea15-minutegap-fillingtaskontheANSWERSHEETafterthemini-lectu re. ANSWERSHEET SECTIONDNOTE-TAKINGANDGAP-FILLING[20MIN.] FillineachofthegapswithONEsuitableword.Youmayrefertoyournotes.Makesurethewordyo ufillinisbothgrammaticallyandsemanticallyacceptable. Computers Therearemillionsofcomputersintheworldtoday. Ascomputersprocessextremely(1) averyfastspeed,theyarechangingvariousaspectsof ourlives.Andtheintroductionof(2) thischangeandalsoledto(3)computers. (3) Computersarewidelyemployedinbankingfor (4)cheques.Theyarealsousedin (5)andforthepaymentofstandingorders.The(5) newlydevelopedElectronicFunds(6) System(6) couldallowthecomputercontrollingittobecomethe centreofawider(7) TEM8-95-2 Themostpopularuseofcomputersin(8)isin(8)keeping(9)locatedonhospitalwardsandeven in(9)operatingtheatres.Computersarealsoinvolvedinassisting(10)throughtheimmedia teprovisionofthe(10) hasaccelerated informationat (1) (2)

section.(18) (1) (5) (12) (13) (14) Whenheissatisfied (15) (11)medicaldata,previouslyoftenonlytobe (11) foundinpublishedmaterial. Computersarerevolutionizingtheproductionof (12).Forexample,thereportercanputhisstory ,knownas(13) ,directlyintothecomputer, andthisthenappearsona(14) withareporter'swork,the(15) canaccess thefinalversionandmakeanyfurtheralterations.By .meansofaspecial(16),thearticlescanthenbe(16) organizedinto(17)andfinallythewholeisauto-(17) maticallytransferredtothe(18) Becauseoftheapplicationofcomputers,significant changeshavetakenplaceinthetypeof(19)done(19) bymanypeopleandmoreimportantlyinthe(20)(20) peopleneededtodothework. PARTIIPROOFREADINGANDERRORCORRECTION(20MINS) AirqualityinBritainhasimprovedconsiderablyinthe lastthirtyyears.Totalemissionsofsmokeintheairhaverisenby over85percentsince1950.Thedomesticsmokingcontrolprogram (2) hasbeenparticularlyimportantinachievingthisresult.Londonand (3) othermajorcitiesarenolongerhavethedensesmoke-laden "smogs"ofthe1950sbutincentralLondonwintersunshinehas increasedabout70percentsince1958.(6) Since1990,everydayairpollutiondatafromtheBritish monitoringnetworkhasbeenmadeavailabletothepublicby theDepartmentoftheEnvironment'sAirQuantityBulletins. Thesegivetheconcentrationsonthreemainpollutants-ozone, nitrogendioxideandsulphurdioxide-andgradeairqualityon ascalebetween"veryweak"and"verygood".Theinformation (12) featuresintelevisionandradioweatherreports,appears (13) inmanynationalandlocalnewspapers.Therefore,thedataarealso availableonthespecialfreetelephonenumberandonvideotextsystems. Acomprehensivereviewoftheissueofurbanizedair(16) qualitywasannouncedinJanuary1992.Threeindependentcommittees (17) ofwhichexpertshavebeenestablishedtoadviseondifferent (18) aspectsoftheproblem,andwillsetguidelinesandtargetsforair(19) quality.Thenetworkalsobeingextendedandupgradedatacost(20) of10millionpounds. PARTIIIREADINGCOMPREHENSION[40MIN.]SECTIONAREADINGCOMPREHENSION[30MIN.] Inthissectiontherearesixreadingpassagesfollowedbyatotaloftwentymultiple-choiceq uestions.ReadthepassagesandthenmarkyouranswersonyourColoredAnswerSheet.TEXTA DavidFrost-Autobiography [Partone] byDavidFrost (9) (10) (11) (4) (7) (8) (14) (15)

Lookedatoneway,itisfaintlyludicrousthatSirDavidFrostshouldbewritinghisautobiogr aphyalready.Thatheshouldhavewrittenjustthefirst30years'worthmightbethoughtstran ge.Hereheis,notyet55yearsold,producingavolumeof528pagesthattakesusnofurtherthan 1969. Itis,true,theperiodofhislifethatestablishedhisnameandfortune,thatswiftrisefromu ndergraduatecabaretturntostarhostonbothsidesoftheAtlantic,jointfounderofanambit iousITVcompanyandlongsinceabletoinviteshowbusinessstars,businesstycoonsandaBrit ishPrimeMinistertobreakfastatthreedays'notice.(Aneventrecalledinhisbookwithsuch emptyindifferencethatyoucannotdecidewhetherthecomprehensivename-droppingisinten dedtoimpressorjustahabit.) AndyetDavidFrost,asignificantfigureinBritishtelevision,certainlyintherapidlycha ngingenvironmentofthe1960's,remainssomethingofamystery.Neverfarfrompositionsofi nfluence,wealthierfromhisbroadcastingactivitiesthanallbutthebiggestmoguls,heisi nmanywaysontheedgeofthings. Hisbook,likehiscareer,perhaps,isasfascinatingasitisunsatisfactory.Thelengthisdu etoitsliberalresorttoprogramtranscripts,whichyieldverbatimexchangeswithhismanyi ntervieweesaswellasdetailedrecallofthehighsandlowsofThatWasTheWeekThatWasandthe scriptingprocessthatachievedthem. TheprivateFrostistobecaughtonlyinpassing,asheremainstruetohispreface:"Wherether ewasachoicebetweena`60staleandapersonaloneIhavetriedalwaystoincludetheformer."T heoutcomeis,Ithink,aninsider'sbook,dependentonrememberingthetimesorknowingthepe ople.Butatthatlevel,itishighlysuggestiveofitsera,offersaviewfromauniqueangle,yi eldssomenewinsights-intotheformationofLondonWeekendTelevision,forinstance-andea rnsitsplaceinthehistoryofBritishTelevision.Likeitsauthor. 16.Theautobiographycoverstheauthor's [A]lastthirtyyears. [B]lifeafter1969. [C]lifebefore1969. [D]first55years. 17.DavidFrostis [B]afamousmoviestar. [A]aninfluentialTVhost. [D]afascinatingnovelist. [C]anambitiouspolitician. 18.Theautobiographyisdescribedasaninsider'sbookbecauseitrequiresaknowledgeof[A] allhispersonalexperiences. [B]hisuniqueinsightsintoBritishhistory. [C]thedevelopmentofBritishtelevision.[D]whatwasreallyhappeninginthe1960s. TEXTB HeCameinonCatPaws Quietly,almostunnoticedbyaworldsunkintotheGreatDepression,GermanyonJan.30,1933, washandedtoa monster.AdolfHitlerarrived,notinjackbootsattheheadofhisNazilegionsbutoncatpaws, creepinginthesidedoor. Thepresident,FieldMarshalPaulvonHindenburg,85anddoddering,hatedHitlerandallhere presented.In1931,aftertheirfirstmeeting,HindenburgsaidHitler"mightbecomeministe rofpostsbutneverchancellor".In1932HitlerchallengedHindenburg.Thepresident-Prote stant,Prussian,aconservativemonarchist-wonwiththevotesofsocialists,Unions,Centr

istCatholicsandLiberalDemocrats.Hitler-Catholic,Austrianandaformertramp-carried upper-classProtestants,Prussianlandownersandmonarchists. Nearlysenileanddesperateforanywaytoestablishorderinthefractiousenvironment,Hind enburgfellpreytointriguers.Papenbeganplottingtobringhimselftopowerandhissuppose dfriendSchleichertothetopofthearmy.PapenofferedHindenburgagovernmentwithHitler' ssupportbutwithoutHitlerinthecabinet.HindenburgmadePapenchancellorandSchleicher defenseminister. IntheJuly1932parliamentaryelections,theNaziswon230of608seats,andHitlerdemandedt hechancellorship;Hindenburgrefused.PapenlostaconfidencevoteinAugust,andhisgover nmentfellafterlosinginthefourthelectioninayearinNovember.Schleicher,whoseveryna memeans"intriguer",turnedonPapen,persuadingHindenburgtonamehimchancellor.Hitler 'spropagandistJosephGoebbelsnoted:"Hewon'tlastlong." Togetrevenge,PapenproposedsharingpowerwithHitlerinJanuary1933;Hitleragreed,butw ithPapenasvicechancellor.Evereagerfororder,HindenburgshiftedonceagainandfiredSc hleicher."Iamsure,"thepresidentsaid,"Ishallnotregretthisactioninheaven."Schleic herrepliedbitterly,"Afterthisbreachoftrust,sir,Iamnotsureyouwillgotoheaven."Sch leicherwouldlatersay:"Istayedinpoweronly57days,andoneachandeveryoneofthemIwasbe trayed57times.Don'teverspeaktomeofGermanloyalty!" AtnoononJan.30,1933,AdolfHitlerwassworninaschancellor.Withinonemonth,theReichst agburnedandcivillibertiesweresuspended.Withintwomonths,theEnablingActstrippedpa rliamentofpowerandmadeHitlerdictator.OnApril1,HitlerdecreedaboycottofJewishbusi ness.OnApril4,hecreatedtheReichDefenseCouncilandbegansecretlyrearmingGermany.On July14,HitlermadetheNaziParty"theonlypoliticalpartyinGermany". Astheysowed,sotheyreaped.IntheBloodPurgeof1934,aNaziSSsquadmurderedKurtyonSchle icherinthedoorwayofhishome.FranzvonPapenlingeredon,sopowerlessanerrandboyforHit lerthathewasacquittedattheNurembergtrials. 19. TheauthorsaysthatHitlercameintopower"Oncatpaws"because[A]heseizedpowerilleg ally. [B]heseizedpowerbymilitaryforce. [C]hequietlytookadvantageoftheinternalconflict.[D]hecleverlytookadvantageoftheD epression. 20. Hitlerfirstaskedtobemadechancellorwhen [A] Papenlostaconfidencevote.[B]Hitlerhadwonathirdofthevotes. [C] HindenburgfiredSchleicher.[D]Schleicherwasfired. 21.Thechancellorwasheldby [A] Papen,Schleicher,andthenHitler. [B] Schleicher,Papen,andthenHitler. [C] Hindenburg,Schleicher,andthenHitler. [D] Hindenburg,Papen,andthenHitler. TEXTC Mercedes-BenzGetsTurnedUpsideDown IrisRossnerhasseeneasternGermanycustomersweepforjoywhentheydriveawayinshiny,new Mercedes-Benzsedans."Theyhavetearsintheireyesandkeepsayinghowluckytheyare,"says

Rossner,theMercedesemployeenaleforpost-deliverycelebrations.Rossnerhasalsoseent heFrenchpopcorksonbottlesofchampagneastheirnationalflagwashoistedaboveapurchase. AndshehasseenAmericanbusinessexecutives,JapanesetouristsandRussianpoliticianstr avelthousandsofmilestoaMercedesplantinsouthwesternGermanywhenaclassicsedanwitht hetrademirkthree-pointedstarwasabouttorollofftheassemblylineandintotheirlives.T hosewerethegoodeconomicmiracleofthe1960sandendedin1991.Tuneshavechanged."Tenyea rsago,wehadclearleadershipinthemarket,"saysMercedesspokesmanHorstKi'ambeer."But overthisperiod,themarkethaschangeddrastically.Wearenowinapitchedbattle.TheJapan esearepartlyresponsible,butMercedeshashadtolearnthehardwaythatevenGermanfirmsli keBMWandAudihavemadeeffortstorisetoourstandardsoftechnicalproficiency:" Mercedesexperiencedoneofitsworstyearseverin1992.Theautornaker'sworldwidecarsale sfellby5percentfromthepreviousyear,toalowof527,500.Beforethedecline,in1988,thec ompanycouldsellcloseto600,000carsperyear.InGermanyalone,therewere30,000fewernew Mercedesregistrationslastyearthanin1991.Asaresult,productionhasplungedbyalmost5 0,000carsto529,400lastyear,alevelwellbeneaththecompany'spotentialcapacityof650, 000.Mercedes'competitorshavebeencatchingupintheUnitedStates,theworld'slargestca rmarket.In1986,Mercedessold100,000vehiclesinAmerica;by1991,thenumberhaddeclined to59,000.Overthelasttwoyears,thestrugglingcompanyhaslostasliceofitsUSmarketshar etoBMW,ToyotaandNissan.AndBMWoutsoldMercedesinAmericalastyearforthefirsttimeini tshistory.Meanwhile,justasMercedesbeganmakingsomeheadwayinJapan,anotoriouslydif ficultmarket,theJapaneseeconomyfellonhardtimesandthecompanysawitssalesdeclineby 13percentinThaicountry. Revenueswillhardlyimprovethisyear,andthetimehascomeforgettingdOwntobusiness.AtM ercedes,thatmeanscuttingpayrolls,streamliningproductionandopeninguptoconsumerne eds-revolutionarystepsforacompanythatonceconsidereditselfbeyondimprovement. 22. Theauthor'sintentionincitingvariousnationalities'interestsinMercedesistoill ustrateMercedes' [A]salestrategies.[B]marketmonopoly. [C]superiorquality. [D]pastrecord. 23. Mercedesishavingahardtimebecause[A]itislaggingbehindintechnology. [B]JapanisturningtoBMWforcars. [C]itscompetitorsarecatchingup. [D]salesinAmericahavedroppedby13%. 24. InthegoodyearsMercedescouldsellabout[A]527,500cars.[B]529,400cars. [C]600,000cars.[D]650,000cars. 25. WhatcausedthedeclineofMercedes'salesinJapan? [A] Japanisaverydifficultmarket. [B] Thestateoftheeconomythere. [C] Competitionfromothercarcompanies. [D] BMWandAudi'simprovedtechnicalstandards. TEXTD SendintheClones "Scientistshavemadeabreakthroughtocloneahumanbeing.That'showatleastonetelevisio

nnewsanchorputitlastweek,andwhilehisdescriptionwasoffthemark,therealnewswasalmo stasfantastic:researchersatGeorgeWashingtonUniversityMedicalCenterinWashington, D.C.,splitsinglehumanembryosintoidenticalcopies,atechnologythatopensapandora'sb oxofethicalquestionsandhassparkedastormofcontroversyaroundtheworld.Claimingthey begantheexperimentstospurdebate,theresearchersgotmorethantheybargainedfor.TheVa ticancondemnedthetechnologyasperverse;oneGermanmagazinecalledtheresearch"unscru pulous",andethicistsinthiscountrydisagreedhotlyoverwhetherornotthetechnologysho uldbeofferedtoinfertilecouples. Thenewsalsoleftmanypeoplewonderingwhat,precisely,thetechnologyisallabout.Thehea dlinesconjuredupfuturisticimagesofarmiesofclones,orhumanbeingsreconstructedfrom afewcells-asortofJurassicParkforhumans.ButwhatresearchersRobertStillmanandJerry Hallactuallydidwastoextendatechniquethathasbeenusedinlivestockformorethandecade. Thephysicians,whospecializeinhelpinginfertilecouplesconceive,usedinvitrofertili zationtocreate.17humanembryosinalaboratorydish.Whentheembryoshadgrownenoughtoco ntaintwotoeightcells.Theresearchersseparatedtheminto48individualcells.Twoofthes eparatedcellssurvivedforafewdaysinthelab,developingintonewhumanembryossmallerth antheheadofapinandconsistingof32cellseach.Thoughnogreattechnicalfeat,theprocedu reopensarangeofunsettlingpossibilities.Forexample,parentscouldhaveoneembryoimpl antedinthemother'swombandstoreitsidenticalsiblingsindefinitely.Thespareembryosc ouldbeimplantedlater,allowingparentstocreateanentirefamilyofidenticalchildrenof differentages.Spareembryoscouldalsobesoldtootherfamilies,whowouldbeabletoseefro manalreadybornchildhowtheirembryowouldturnout.Evenmorebizarre,awomanconceivedfr omasplitembryocouldgivebirthtoherowntwin. Issuestocome.Suchscenariosraisethornyissuesabouttherightsofparentsandthemeaning ofindividuality.Someethicistsmaintainthatparentshavetherighttodowithembryoswhat theywill,includinghavingtwinsbornveryapartButothersfearthattheprocedureunaccept ablyalterswhatitmeanstobeahumanbeing,especiallywhentheyoungertwinsareforcedtose eolderversionsofthemselves."Doeslookingatyourselfviolatesomeprofoundsenseofself andindividuality?"asksDr.MaryMathews,directoroftheinfertilityprogramattheUniver sityofCaliforniaatSanFrancisco. Amidthecontroversy,onethingseemscertain:theexperimentswillcontinue.Whilecloning isforbidden,inGermanyamongothercountries,fertilityresearchersproceedingintheUni tedStates,largelywithoutfederalfundingorregulation.Theresearchersmustobtainappr ovalonlyfromtheirhospitalsorclinic'sboard.Withoutfederaloversight,thehighlycomp etitivefertilitybusinessmaysoonusethenewtechnologytoattractclients.AsHalltoldth escientificjournalSciencelastweek,"Itwasjustamatteroftime." 26.Thenewsthatscientistswereabletosplithumanembryosintoidenticalcopieshas [A] pleasedmanyinfertilecouples. [B] causedmuchheateddebates. [C] beencondemnedallovertheworld. [D] beenproclaimedasascientificbreakthrough. 27.Accordingtothepassage,theresearchopensthepossibilitythat[A]infertilecouplesc ouldconceive. [B]humanbeingscouldbeproducedoutsidethemotherwomb.

[C]awomancouldgivebirthtoherowntwin.[D]peoplewouldalllookalike 28.IntheUnitedStates,theexperimentsare [A]whollyfundedbythegovernment.[B]discouragedbythepeopleingeneral. [C] supervisedbythegovernment.[D]commerciallypromising. TEXTE LanguageandThought Itisevidentthatthereisacloseconnectionbetweenthecapacitytouselanguageandthecapa citiescoveredbytheverb"tothink".Indeed,somewritershaveidentifiedthinkingwithusi ngwords:Platocoinedthesaying,"Inthinkingthe soulistalkingtoitself';J.B.Watsonreducedthinkingtoinhibitedspeechlocatedinthemi nutemovementsortensionsofthephysiologicalmechanismsinvolvedinspeaking;andalthou ghRyleiscarefultopointoutthattherearemanysensesinwhichapersonissaidtothinkinwhi chwordsarenotinevidence,hehasalsosaidthatsayingsomethinginaspecificframeofmindi sthinkingathought. Isthinkingreducibleto,ordependentupon,languagehabits?Itwouldseemthatmanythinkin gsituationsarehardlydistinguishablefromtheskillfuluseoflanguage,althoughtherear esomeothers-inwhichlanguageisnotinvolved.Thoughtcannotbesimplyidentifiedwithusi nglanguage.Itmaybethecase,ofcourse,thatthenon-linguisticskillsinvolvedinthought canonlybeacquiredanddevelopedifthelearnerisabletouseandunderstandlanguage.Howev er,thisquestionisonewhichwecannothopetoanswerinthisbook.Obviouslybeingabletouse languagemakesforaconsiderabledevelopmentinallone'scapacitiesbuthowpreciselythis comesaboutwecannotsay. Atthecommon-senselevelitappearsthatthereisoftenadistinctionbetweenthoughtandthe wordsweemploytocommunicatewithotherpeople.Weoftenhavetostrugglehardtofindwordst ocapturewhatourthinkinghasalreadygrasped,andwhenwedofindwordswesometimesfeeltha ttheyfailtodotheirjobproperly.Againwhenwereportordescribeourthinkingtootherpeop lewedonotmerelyreportunspokenwordsandsentences.Suchsentencesdonotalwaysoccurint hinking,andwhentheydotheyaremergedwithvagueimageryandthehintofunconsciousorsubl iminalactivitiesgoingonjustoutofrage.Thinking,asithappens,ismorelikestruggling, striving,orsearchingforsomethingthanitisliketalkingorreading.Wordsdoplaytheirpa rtbuttheyarerarelytheonlyfeatureofthought.Thisobservationissupportedbytheexperi mentsoftheWurzburgpsychologistsreportedinChapterEightwhoshowedthatintelligentad aptiveresponsescanoccurinproblem-solvingsituationswithouttheuseofeither'wordsor imagesofanyltind."Set"and"determiningtendencies"openswithouttheactualuseoflangu ageinhelpingustothinkpurposefullyandintelligently. Againthestudyofspeechdisordersduetobraininjurydiseasesuggestthatpatientscanthin k withouthavingadequatecontrolovertheirlanguage.Somepatients,forexample,failtofmd thenamesofobjectspresentedtothemandareunabletodescribesimpleeventswhichtheywitn ess;theyevenfinditdifficulttointerpretlongwrittennotices.Buttheysucceedinplayin ggamesofchessordraughts.Theycanusetheconceptsneededforchessplayingordraughtplay ingbutareunabletousemanyoftheconceptsinordinarylanguage.Howtheymanagetodothiswe donotknow.YetanimalssuchasKohler'schimpanzeescansolveproblemsby-workingoutstrat egiessuchasthe?inventionofimplementsorclimbingaidswhensuchanimalshavenolanguage

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