Railway Noiseand Vibration：Mechanisms, Modelling and Means of Co....pdf

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Elsevier Linacre House, Jordon Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP, UK. Radarweg 29, PO Box 211, 1000 AE Amsterdam, The Netherlands First edition 2009 Copyright Ó 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise without the prior written permission of the publisher Permissions may be sought directly from Elsevier’s Science & Technology Rights Department in Oxford, UK: phone (+44) (0) 1865 843830; fax (+44) (0) 1865 853333; email: permissions@elsevier.com. Alter- natively you can submit your request online by visiting the Elsevier web site at http://elsevier.com/locate/ permissions, and selecting Obtaining permission to use Elsevier material Notice No responsibility is assumed by the publisher for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions or ideas contained in the material herein British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Thompson, David Railway noise and vibration: mechanisms, modelling and means 1. Railroad tracks - Noise 2. Railroad tracks - Vibration 3. Railroad trains - Noise 4. Railroad trains - Vibration 5. Noise control 6. Damping (Mechanics) I. Title 625.104 Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress Library of Congress Control Number: 2008934415 ISBN-13: 978-0-08-045147-3 Printed and bound in Great Britain 09 10 11 12 13 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

Preface Speak through the earthquake, wind and ﬁre, O still small voice of calm! J.G. Whittier (1807–1892) When our children were young we took them to the railway station to see off some visitors. They were excited at the prospect of seeing the trains. But, while we were waiting, an express train thundered through the station and it was all too much for their sensitive ears. ‘We don’t like trains now’ they sobbed. ‘Don’t worry’, I said, ‘it’s my job to make trains quieter’ and that seemed to reassure them. But then they wanted to know: ‘How do you make trains quieter?’ Well, perhaps this book gives the answer; it is in any case the result of over 25 years of trying to ‘make trains quieter’. On graduating in 1980 I was privileged to join British Rail Research. After a ‘training period’ working on various projects it was suggested to me by Alistair Gilchrist, then Head of Civil Engineering Research that I should join the Acoustics Unit. I have to confess that until then I didn’t really know what acoustics was! I was to work on rolling noise; Alistair suggested that I should be able to solve the rolling noise problem in six months or a year and then could get on with the ‘really interesting topic’ of ground vibration. It wasn’t until nearly 20 years later that this could be fulﬁlled, although even now rolling noise is not completely ‘solved’. While at BR I was fortunate to be able to register as an external student at the Institute of Sound and Vibration Research (ISVR) at the University of Southampton where I studied for a PhD on the topic of rolling noise modelling. When this was completed in 1990 I joined the Low Noise Design group at TNO in Delft where I continued to work mainly on railway noise problems. Then in 1996 I moved ‘back’ to ISVR as a lecturer and latterly as professor. The challenge of teaching courses at Masters level on topics such as noise control and structural vibration has helped to put the things I was already doing in railway noise into a more structured academic context. Railway noise spans a wide range of disciplines within acoustics and vi- bration, such as multiple degree of freedom systems, analytical modelling of beam and plate vibration, ﬁnite element and boundary element analysis, signal processing, modal analysis, vibroacoustics and aeroacoustics. This book brings together research in the area of railway noise and vibration, much of which has been published in various papers. The intention is to present it in a way that provides a coherent introduction to the ﬁeld. While inevitably many of the references are our own, the book is not just a record of the authors’ work and also owes much to the many colleagues we have worked with over the years. It is not practical in a book of this sort to provide an introduction to sound and vibration for those completely unfamiliar with them. Some basic background to acoustics is therefore assumed. For those seeking a good introduction to acoustics, a number of books could be recommended, including Fundamentals of Noise and

x Preface Vibration, by F. Fahy and J. Walker, published by Spon Press and Sound and Structural Vibration, by F. Fahy and P. Gardonio, published by Academic Press. A few words about notation are perhaps in order. For frequency, both f in cycles/s (Hz) and u, the circular frequency in radians/s, are used, depending on the context. These are, of course, related by u ¼ 2pf. Complex notation is used with an implicit time dependence of eiut. Consequently, some published results (based on the al- ternative e–iut form) have been modiﬁed to be consistent with this. The imaginary unit is denoted by i, rather than j, out of personal preference. An attempt has been made to use a consistent coordinate system throughout (explained in Chapter 3). This has necessitated modifying the notation from some published work that is quoted. Symbols have also been standardised where possible into a reasonably consistent notation. Many of the example calculations are based on sets of parameters that have been chosen for illustration purposes. They are not intended to represent any particular case but are in some sense ‘typical’. By following the various calculations using this example set of parameters the progression in modelling is hopefully not distracted by the choice of parameter values. The frequency range of interest is determined essentially by the audible frequency range, nominally 20 Hz to 20 kHz (apart from the section on ground vibration where a lower range is appropriate). As the ear responds to sound logarithmically (a dou- bling of frequency is a constant musical interval, an octave), logarithmic scales are widely used for the frequency axis. Also for amplitudes, the decibel scale is widely used. Where it is not stated, standard reference values have been assumed for decibel values: 2 10–5 Pa for sound pressure level, 10–12 W for sound power level. The decibel scale has its limitations, but it can also be very forgiving – a measurement accuracy of better than 1 dB is hard to achieve, but this corresponds to 12% in amplitude which in other ﬁelds of engineering would be considered an excessive margin of error. Frequency response functions (FRF’s) are mostly presented in terms of mobility (velocity/force) although in places receptance or accelerance are used where published results are in this form. In common with much current practice in vibration these are preferred here over mechanical impedance (or dynamic stiffness or apparent mass). Damping is almost entirely represented by using a hysteretic (constant loss factor) damping model rather than a viscous model. Justiﬁcation of this in relation to the track is given in Chapter 3. For the wheel, the damping is so light that it makes little difference which damping model is used. The text deals with mechanisms of sound generation, modelling techniques for representing them and means of control, particularly those applied at the source. Hopefully it will also ﬁnd a readership beyond the railway community. By looking at noise control principles applied to a real problem it provides an extended worked example of how to combine various techniques, theoretical and experimental, in ﬁrst understanding the problem deeply enough before proposing solutions and testing them. It attempts to strike a balance between mathematical treatment and practical examples, between exploring fundamentals and discussing application, between text and pictures, between equations and physical explanations. David Thompson Southampton, October 2008

Acknowledgements There are many people I wish to thank for their help in this project. First of all my two co-authors, Chris Jones and Pierre-Etienne Gautier. While the book has es- sentially been my project, in many ways it couldn’t have been written without them. Their direct contributions are found in Chapters 8, 12, 13 and 14, but their inﬂuence can also be seen throughout the book. Chris was a colleague in my BR days and again since 1997 at ISVR. It has been a very fruitful and enjoyable collaboration and friendship. Pierre-Etienne I have known since 1991 when TWINS was ﬁrst ‘born’. More recently he has generously invited me to spend several periods of time at SNCF Direction de l’Innovation et de la Recherche in Paris as ‘visiting professor’ from 2005 onwards and considerable parts of the book have been written during these times. I am grateful to the ISVR and the University of Southampton for the freedom to write this. It is a real privilege to have a job that one can enjoy. I wish also to thank Trinity College, Cambridge for a visiting scholarship in 2005 during which the book was started, the Department of Engineering at the University of Cambridge for hosting me during that period and in particular Hugh Hunt and Robin Langley. The book has also gained much inspiration from the ‘Savoir’ International Course on Noise and Vibration from Rail Transport Systems which began in 1991 as a col- laborative venture between ISVR, TNO, SNCF and STUVA and has been run ten times since then. Initially my fellow-lecturers were Tjeert ten Wolde, John Walker, Friedrich Kru¨ger and Eric Tassilly. Over the years other colleagues took over lec- turing and responsibility for the organisation, notably Michael Dittrich as well as Laurent Guccia and Chris Jones. Each has taught me a lot as well as the delegates on the course. Thanks are due to the following people who have supplied photographs, diagrams and information or who have proofread parts of the text: Olly Bewes, Estelle Bongini, Steve Cox, Virginie Delavaud, Pieter Dings, Don Eadie, Dieter Hoffmann, Marcel Janssens, Rick Jones, Toshiki Kitagawa, Jan Lub, Florence Margiocchi, Kerri Parsley, Franck Poisson and Edwin Verheijen. I am also grateful to the staff at Elsevier, especially Melanie Benson and Susan Li for all their help and patience. Looking back, there are many people I wish to thank, especially the people who have ‘believed’ in me and who have created the environment that has allowed this work to come to fruition. It was Alistair Gilchrist who ﬁrst interviewed me for a job at BR Research and who later pointed me in the direction of acoustics. Many others at BR Research were inﬂuential, including Charles Frederick, Richard Gostling, Colin Stanworth and Brian Hemsworth. Bob White was a great inspiration as my PhD supervisor at ISVR. Tjeert ten Wolde encouraged me to move to TNO; it was a pleasure to work with many colleagues there, especially Jan Verheij, Michael Dittrich and Marcel Janssens. Through ERRI it was a privilege also to work with Paul Remington, Nicolas Vincent, Maria Heckl and the late Manfred Heckl. At ISVR, Joe Hammond was brave enough to take me on; he, Phil Nelson, Steve Elliott and Mike Brennan have all encouraged me as my ‘line managers’.

xii Acknowledgements Funding for the research over the years has come from many sources including British Rail, ORE (later ERRI) through its Committee C163, the Dutch Ministries of Environment and Transport, the EU, EPSRC and various companies including Corus, Pandrol, Bombardier, DB, ProRail, SNCF and RFF. All these are gratefully acknowledged. The ISVR is a great place to work where I have many supportive colleagues. I want to thank especially the many research students and post-docs I have had the privilege of supervising, including: Tianxing Wu, Xiaozhen Sheng, Woo Sun Park, Anand Thite, Tristan Armstrong, Gang Xie, Ji Woo Yoo, Olly Bewes, Andrew Monk-Steel, Angela Mu¨ller, Jungsoo Ryue, Toshiki Kitagawa, Zhenyu Huang, Azma Putra, Nazirah Ahmad, Briony Croft, David Herron, Becky Broadbent, Nuthnapa Triepaischajonsak. Many of you will see some of your work reﬂected in the enclosed. I gladly acknowledge that I couldn’t have done it without you. I also want to mention Robin Ford who spent a productive sabbatical with us at ISVR working on contact ﬁltering. Finally, I want to thank my family and friends for all their support, especially during the times of stress involved in writing this. Thank you to the many friends at St John’s church Rownhams. Thank you to Mum and Dad for all you gave me. Thank you to Alison and Fiona (the real twins) and to Sandra for all your love and for all the fun we have together. And thank you Claire, simply for everything over the last 25 years. There is so much I could not have done without you.

Copyright Acknowledgements Figs 1.1, 2.14, 7.7, 7.8, 7.12, 7.15, 7.19, 7.22, 7.25, 7.26, and 7.28 Reprinted from Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F, Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit 220(4) D.J. Thompson and P.E. Gautier. A review of research into wheel/rail rolling noise reduction. 385-408, ISSN: 0954-4097, DOI: 10.1243/ 0954409JRRT79, Copyright (2006), with permission from Professional Engineering Publishing. Fig. 1.2 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 231, D.J. Thompson and C.J.C. Jones, A review of the modelling of wheel/rail noise generation, 519-536, Copyright (2000), with permission from Elsevier. Figs 2.5, 7.11, 7.18 and 7.27 Reprinted from Noise and Vibration from High-Speed Trains, ed. V.V. Krylov, published by Thomas Telford, Copyright (2001), with permission from Thomas Telford Ltd. Fig. 2.7 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 193, D.J. Thompson. On the relationship between wheel and rail surface roughness and rolling noise, 149-160, Copyright (1996), with permission from Elsevier. Figs 2.11 and 2.12 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 120, D.J. Thompson. Predictions of acoustic radiation from vibrating wheels and rails, 275- 280, Copyright (1988), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 2.13 Reprinted from Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F, Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit 205(F2) D.J. Thompson. Theoretical modelling of wheel-rail noise generation. 137-149, ISSN: 0954-4097, DOI: 10.1243/PIME_ PROC_1991_205_227_02, Copyright (1991), with permission from Professional Engineering Publishing. Figs 2.14, 2.16a, 9.6 and 14.5 Reproduced from Handbook of Railway Vehicle Dy- namics, ed. S.D. Iwnicki. Copyright (2006) by Taylor & Francis Group LLC. Reproduced with permission of Taylor & Francis Group LLC via Copyright Clearance Center. Fig. 3.10 Reprinted from Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part F, Journal of Rail and Rapid Transit 213(4), D.J. Thompson, C.J.C. Jones, T.X. Wu and G. de France, The inﬂuence of the non-linear stiffness behaviour of railpads on the track component of rolling noise. 233-241, ISSN: 0954-4097, DOI: 10.1243/ 0954409991531173, Copyright (1999), with permission from Professional Engi- neering Publishing. Figs 3.42, 3.43 and 3.44 Reprinted from Acustica united with Acta Acustica 86, T.X. Wu and D.J. Thompson, The inﬂuence of random sleeper spacing and ballast stiffness on the vibration behaviour of railway track, 313-321, Copyright (2000), with permission from S. Hirzel Verlag.

xiv Copyright Acknowledgements Fig. 3.45, 3.46 and 3.47 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 203, D.J. Thompson, Experimental analysis of wave propagation in railway tracks, 867-888, Copyright (1997), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 5.26 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 267, D.J. Thompson, The inﬂuence of the contact zone on the excitation of wheel/rail noise, 523-535, Copyright (2003), with permission from Elsevier. Figs 6.22, 6.23, 6.24 and 6.25 Reprinted with permission from Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 113, D.J. Thompson, C.J.C. Jones, N. Turner, In- vestigation into the validity of two-dimensional models for sound radiation from waves in rails, 1965-1974, 2003. Copyright (2003) American Institute of Physics. Figs 6.27 and 6.28 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 293, T. Kitagawa and D.J. Thompson, Comparison of wheel/rail noise radiation on Japanese railways using the TWINS model and microphone array measurements, 496-509, Copyright (2006), with permission from Elsevier. Figs 6.41, 6.42a, 6.43 and 6.44 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 267, C.J.C. Jones, D.J. Thompson, Extended validation of a theoretical model for railway rolling noise using novel wheel and track designs, 509-522, 2003, Copyright (2003), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 6.42b Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 193, D.J. Thompson, P. Fodiman and H. Mahe´. Experimental validation of the TWINS prediction pro- gram, part 2: results, 137-147, Copyright (1996), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 7.4 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 231, D.J. Thompson and P.J. Remington. The effects of transverse proﬁle on the excitation of wheel/rail noise, 537-548, Copyright (2000), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 7.10 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 231, D.J. Thompson and P.J. Remington. The effects of transverse proﬁle on the excitation of wheel/rail noise, 537-548, Copyright (2000), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 7.23 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 231, C.J.C. Jones and D.J. Thompson. Rolling noise generated by wheels with visco-elastic layers, 779-790, Copyright (2000), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 7.30 Reprinted from Applied Acoustics 68, D.J. Thompson, C.J.C. Jones, T.P. Waters and D. Farrington. A tuned damping device for reducing noise from railway track, 43-57, 2007, Copyright (2007), with permission from Elsevier. Figs 8.13 and 8.22a Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 267, C. Talotte, P.E. Gautier, D.J. Thompson, C. Hanson, Identiﬁcation, modelling and reduction potential of railway noise sources: a critical survey, 447-468, 2003, Copyright (2003), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 8.15 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 293, K. Nagakura, Locali- zation of aerodynamic noise sources of Shinkansen trains, 547-565, Copyright (2006), with permission from Elsevier. Fig. 8.17 Reprinted from Journal of Sound and Vibration 231, T. Kitagawa and K. Nagakura, Aerodynamic noise generated by Shinkansen cars, 913-924, Copyright (2000), with permission from Elsevier.

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