机载雷达导论（Introduction to Airborne Radar.pdf）

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INTRODUCTION TO AIRBORNE RADAR SECOND EDITION GEORGE W. STIMSON MENDHAM, NEW JERSEY

Acquisition and Product Development: Dudley R. Kay Production and Manufacturing Services: Denise G. May Illustrations and Layout: George Stimson and Shyam Reyes Cover Design: Carolyn Allen - IntelliSource Publishing and elaine kilcullen Page Composition by Lehigh Press Colortronics Printed by World Color Book Services ©1998 by George Stimson III. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form whatsoever without written permission from the publisher except in the case of brief quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews. For information, contact the publisher, SciTech Publishing, Inc., 89 Dean Road, Mendham, NJ 07945. Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 1-891121-01-4 SciTech Publishing, Inc. 89 Dean Road Mendham, NJ 07945 Phone: (973) 543-1115 Fax: (973) 543-2770 E-mail: scitech@worldnet.att.net http://www.scitechpub.com Standard Orders from: Whitehurst & Clark Book Fulfillment 100 Newfield Ave. Edison, NJ 08837 (800) 488-8040 (732) 225-2727 Fax: (732) 225-1562 wcbooks@aol.com SciTech books may be purchased at quantity discounts for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Members of any of the following professional associations may order directly from the association. Contact the association below and refer to the special order number. The Institution of Electrical Engineers Michael Faraday House Six Hills Way, Stevenage, SGI 2AY, UK Phone: +44 (0) 1438 313311 Fax: +44 (0) 1438 313465 E-mail: books@iee.org.uk http://www.iee.org.uk IEE Order No.: RA 101 SPIE—The International Society The Institute of Electrical for Optical Engineering and Electronic Engineers, Inc. PO Box 10, Bellingham, WA 98227-0010 USA Phone: (360) 676-3290 Fax: (360) 647-1445 E-mail: book orders@spie.org http://www.spie.org SPIE Order No.: PM56 PO Box 1331, 445 Hoes Lane Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331 USA Phone: (800) 678-IEEE Fax: (732) 981-9667 E-mail: customer.service@ieee.org http://www.ieee.org IEEE Order No.: PC5744 ii

This book is dedicated to Meade A. Livesay (left), veteran engineer, technical man- ager, and past President of the Hughes Radar Systems Group, who envisioned and commissioned the original writing of the book. He is seen here examining an advance copy of the first edition, with the author.

Brief Outline I. Overview VI. Air-to-Air Operation (Page numbers are in blue print.) 1. Basic Concepts (3) 2. Approaches to Implementation (15) 3. Representative Applications (35) II. Essential Background Information 4. Radio Waves & Alternating Current Signals (49) 5. Nonmathematical Understanding of Radar (59) 6. The Ubiquitous Decibel (71) III. Radar Fundamentals 7. Choice of Radio Frequency (83) 8. Directivity and the Antenna Beam (91) 9. Pulsed Operation (107) 10. Detection Range (115) 11. Range Equation (135) 12. Pulse Delay Ranging (151) 13. Pulse Compression (163) 14. FM Ranging (177) IV. Pulse Doppler Radar 15. Doppler Effect (189) 16. Spectrum of a Pulsed Signal (199) 17. Mysteries of Pulsed Spectrum Unveiled (209) 18. Sensing Doppler Frequencies (235) 19. How Digital Filters Work (253) 20. Digital Filter Bank and The FFT (267) 21. Measuring Range Rate (281) V. The Problem of Ground Clutter 22. Sources & Spectra of Ground Return (293) 23. Effect of Ambiguities on Ground Clutter (309) 24. Ground Moving Target Detection (317) 25. The Crucial Choice of PRF (325) 26. Low PRF Operation (335) 27. Medium PRF Operation (355) 28. High PRF Operation (369) 29. Automatic Tracking (383) VII. High Resolution Ground Mapping 30. Meeting Resolution Requirements (393) 31. Synthetic Array Radar (SAR) Principles (403) 32. SAR Design Considerations (425) 33. SAR Operating Modes (431) VIII. Radar In Electronic Warfare (EW) 34. Electronic Countermeasures (ECM) (439) 35. Electronic Countercountermeasures (ECCM) (457) 36. EW Intelligence Functions (469) IX. Advanced Concepts 37. Electronically Steered Array Antennas (ESAs) (473) 38. ESA Design (481) 39. Antenna RCS Reduction (493) 40. Advanced Radar Techniques (499) • Approaches to Multi-frequency Operation (500) • Small Target Detection (504) • Bistatic Target Detection (507) • Space Time Adaptive Processing (509) • True Time Delay (TTD) Beam Steering (511) • Three-Dimensional SAR (515) 41. Advanced Waveforms & Mode Control (519) 42. Low Probability of Intercept (LPI) (525) 43. Advanced Processor Architecture (535) X. Representative Radar Systems (545)

About the Author George Stimson became fascinated with radio waves as a teenage amateur radio enthusiast, designing and building transmitters and receivers. His first brush with radar, which came in the early years of World War II, was bouncing echoes off Navy blimps in between experiments outside the ultra-high frequency lab at Stanford University. Upon receiving his bachelor’s degree in electrical engineering, he did some additional course work at Caltech, went through the Navy’s radar schools at Bowdoin and MIT, and wound up as an electronics officer on an attack transport. Following the war, he served as an engineer on Southern California Edison’s frequency-change project and at its com- pletion joined Northrop’s Snark Missile project. There quite by chance he became involved in technical publications and motion pictures. In 1951, he was hired by Hughes Aircraft Company to write a widely circulated technical periodical called the Radar Interceptor. Working closely with the Company’s top designers, in the ensuing years he observed at first hand the fascinating evolution of airborne radar from the simple sys- tems for the first all-weather interceptors to the advanced pulsed doppler systems of today. He witnessed the develop- ment of the first radar-guided air-to-air missiles, the first incorporation of digital computers in small airborne radars, the birth of laser radar, SAR, and the programmable digital signal processor; and he saw the extension of airborne radar technology to space applications. Following his retirement in 1990, he has remained active in the field, teaching a short course in modern radar at the National Test Pilots School in Mojave, writing a technical brochure on Hughes antenna radiation-pattern and RCS measurement facilities, producing a fully narrated interactive multimedia presentation on the new HYSAR radar, and writ- ing the article on radar for the 1998 edition of the Encyclopedia Americana.

Preface It is hoped that you will find this book as interesting and enjoyable to read as it was to write. Key Features As you will undoubtedly find, the book is unique in several respects. First, beginning from scratch, it presents the wide range of airborne radar techniques in the form of an unfolding saga, not of individuals, but of radar con- cepts and principles. Each chapter tells a story, and the story flows naturally on from chapter to chapter. Second, the book is designed to fulfill the needs of all who want to learn about radar, regardless of their tech- nical backgrounds. It has sufficient technical depth and mathematical rigor to satisfy the instructor, the engineer, the professor. Yet, as long as a reader has a basic understanding of algebra and knows a little trigonometry and physics, the text painlessly takes the reader in bite-sized increments to the point of being able to talk on a sound footing with the radar experts. Third, every technical concept is illustrated with a sim- ple diagram immediately next to the text it relates to. Every illustration has a concise caption, which enables it to stand alone. Fourth, to keep the text simple, where additional detail may be desired by some readers but not all, it is conve- niently placed in a blue “panel” which one may skip, on a first reading, and come back to later on and exam- ine at leisure. Exceptions, caveats, and reviewers com- ments are presented without detracting from the sim- plicity of the text in brief “side notes.” These features lead to the perhaps most unique aspect of the book. One can follow the development of each chapter by reading just the text, or just the illustrations and captions, or by seamlessly moving along between text and illustrations. Yet another unique feature. Recognizing that people interested in airborne radar love airplanes, dispersed through the book are photos and renderings of radar- bearing aircraft, spanning the history of airborne radar from the Bristol Beaufighter of 1940 to the B-2 Bomber and F-22 fighter of today. What’s New If you’re familiar with the first edition, you may be wondering what’s new in the second? Prompted by the advent of “stealth,” the daunting prospect of ever more sophisticated radar countermea- sures, and the explosive growth of digital-processing throughput, which has made practical many radar tech- niques long considered “blue sky,” 12 new chapters have been added. Briefly, they cover the following: • Electronically steered array antennas (ESAs)— besides providing extreme beam agility, they’re a “must” for stealth • Antenna RCS reduction—also a crucial require- ment of stealth • Low-probability of intercept techniques (LPI) — besides greatly reducing vulnerability to counter- measures, they amazingly enable a radar to detect targets without its signals being usefully detected by an enemy • Electronic countermeasures, counter countermea- sures, and intelligence functions • Multi-frequency operation and small-signal target detection—also essential in the era of stealth— plus space-time adaptive processing, true-time- delay beam steering, and 3-D SAR • New modes and approaches to mode control that take advantage of the ESA’s versatility • Advanced airborne digital processing architec- tures—key to most of the above capabilities • Detection and tracking of low-speed moving tar- gets on the ground—an important topic missed in the first edition. iv

To illustrate the application of the basic radar princi- ples, the book ends by briefly describing a dozen or so airborne radars currently in service in applications rang- ing from long-range surveillance to environmental moni- toring. Also warranting mention, the first three chapters have been extensively modified to provide a complete overview of virtually all of the basic principles and advanced features presented in the body of the book. These chapters may be useful in providing a “stand- alone” briefing on modern radar for students wanting a quick introduction to the subject. Acknowledgements Needless to say, I’m deeply grateful to the following engineers of the Hughes Aircraft Company (now a part of Raytheon) past and present, who have reviewed vari- ous sections of the book and contributed valuable sug- gestions, technical information, and insights. For the first edition: Eddie Phillips, Ben DeWaldt, Nate Greenblatt, Dave Goltzman, Kurt Harrison, Scott Fairchild, Verde Pieroni, Morris Swiger, Jeff Hoffner, John Wittmond, Fred Williams, Pete Demopolis, Denny Riggs, and Hugh Washburn. For the new chapters: Doug Benedict, John Griffith, Don Parker, Steve Panaretos, Howard Nussbaum, Robert Rosen, Bill Posey, John Wittmond, Dave Sjolund, Lee Tower, Larry Petracelli, Robert Frankot, and Irwin Newberg. I am extremely grateful to Merrill Skolnik and Russell Lefevre (who reviewed an early draft of the second edi- tion for the IEEE) for their encouragement and helpful suggestions. Also, thanks are due to Hugh Griffiths of University College London and his colleagues, Dr. David Belcher and Prof. Chris Oliver of DERA Malvern, for the excel- lent SAR maps they provided; and to Gerald Kaiser, then professor at the University of Massachusetts- Lowell, who on his own initiative in anticipation of the second edition combed through the first from cover to cover to spot overlooked typos and other errors. In addition, abundant thanks go to Hughes’ ever helpful Al Peña for securing the negatives of the first edition for reuse in this edition. Finally, special thanks to Shyam Reyes, for his invalu- able aid with page composition and artwork, and to Dudley Kay and Denise May of SciTech, without whom the publication of this edition would not have been possible. G.W. S., San Marino, California v

Contents Part I Overview of Airborne Radar Combining Signals of Different Phase Chapter 1 Basic Concepts Radio Detection Determining Target Position Exploiting the Doppler Effect Ground Mapping Chapter 2 Approaches to Implementation Generic “Pulsed” Radar Generic Pulse-Doppler Radar Generic Radar for Stealth Chapter 3 Representative Applications Hazardous-Weather Detection Navigational Aid Ground Mapping Reconnaissance and Surveillance Fighter/Interceptor Mission Support Air-to-Ground Weapon Delivery Short-Range Air-to-Sea Search Proximity Fuses Part II Essential Groundwork Chapter 4 Radio Waves and Alternating Current Signals Nature of Radio Waves Characteristics of Radio Waves Chapter 5 Key to a Nonmathematical Understanding of Radar How a Phasor Represents a Signal 3 4 6 10 11 15 15 25 30 35 36 36 39 40 41 43 45 45 49 49 52 59 59 Combining Signals of Different Frequency Resolving Signals into I and Q Components Chapter 6 The Ubiquitous Decibel What Decibels Are Converting from Power Ratios to dB Converting from dB to Power Ratios Representing Power Ratios Less Than One Using Decibels Power Gain in Terms of Voltage Decibels as Absolute Units Part III Radar Fundamentals Chapter 7 Choice of Radio Frequency Frequencies Used for Radar Frequency Bands 61 62 67 71 71 74 75 75 76 77 77 83 83 84 Influence of Frequency on Radar Performance 85 Selecting the Optimum Frequency 88 Chapter 8 Directivity and the Antenna Beam 91 Distribution of Radiated Energy in Angle Characteristics of the Radiation Pattern Electronic Beam Steering Angular Resolution Angle Measurement Antenna Beams for Ground Mapping Chapter 9 Pulsed Operation Advantages of Pulsed Transmission Pulsed Waveform 91 96 100 101 102 106 107 107 108 vii

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