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InSAR Principles：Guidelines for SAR Interferometry Processing an....pdf
Front Cover
Acknowledgements
Table of Contents
Scope
Part A Interferometric SAR image processing and interpretation
1. Synthetic Aperture Radar basics
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 Introduction to ERS
1.1.2 Introduction to Envisat
1.2 SAR images of the Earth’s surface
1.2.1 What is a strip-map SAR imaging system?
1.2.2 What is a complex SAR image?
1.2.3 SAR resolution cell projection on the ground
2. SAR interferometry: applications and limits
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Terrain altitude measurement through the interferometric phase
2.2.1 Interferogram flattening
2.2.2 Altitude of ambiguity
2.2.3 Phase unwrapping and DEM generation
2.3 Terrain motion measurement: Differential Interferometry
2.4 The atmospheric contribution to the interferometric phase
2.5 Other phase noise sources
2.6 Coherence maps
3. SAR Differential Interferometry basics and examples
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Landers co-seismic deformation
3.3 Small earthquake modelling
3.4 The quiet but complicated deformation after an earthquake
3.5 A case of coherence loss: India
3.6 A case of damaged raw data, studying a large earthquake in Chile
Part B InSAR processing: a practical approach
1. Selecting ERS images for InSAR processing
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Available information about ERS images
1.2.1 The ESA on-line multi-mission catalogue
1.2.2 DESCW
1.2.3 Expected coherence (prototype)
1.3 Selecting images for InSAR DEM generation
1.4 Selecting images for Differential InSAR applications
1.4.1 Hints for image selection
2. Interferogram generation
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Generation of synthetic fringes
2.3 Co-registering
2.3.1 Co-registering coefficients
2.3.2 Co-registering parameter estimation
2.3.3 Implementation of resampling
2.4 Master and slave oversampling
2.5 Range spectral shift & azimuth common bandwidth filtering
2.5.1 Range spectral shift filtering
2.5.2 Azimuth common band filtering
2.6 Interferogram computation
2.6.1 Complex multi-looking
2.6.2 Generation of coherence maps
2.7 Applications of coherence
2.8 Interferogram geocoding & mosaicking
3. InSAR DEM reconstruction
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Processing chain and data selection
3.3 Phase unwrapping techniques for InSAR DEM reconstruction
3.3.1 What are we looking for?
3.3.2 Case p=2, Unweighted Least Mean Squares method
3.3.3 Case p=2, Weighted Least Mean Squares method
3.3.4 Case p=1, Minimum Cost Flow method
3.3.5 Case p=0, Branch-Cut and other minimum L0 methods
3.3.6 Outlook
3.4 From phase to elevation
3.4.1 Polynomial approximation of satellite orbits, point localisation and data geocoding
3.4.2 Data resampling
3.4.3 Impact of baseline errors on the estimated topography
3.4.4 Precise orbit determination
3.5 Error sources, multi-baseline strategies and data fusion
3.5.1 Multi-Interferogram InSAR DEM reconstruction
3.6 Combination of ascending and descending passes
3.7 Conclusions
4. Differential Interferometry (DInSAR)
4.1 Examples of differential interferometry on land
4.1.1 Physical changes
4.1.2 Volcano: Okmok
4.1.3 Surface rupture: Superstition Hill
4.1.4 Subsidence: East Mesa
4.2 Example of differential interferometry on ice
4.3 Review of various criteria for data selection
4.4 Interferometric interpretation
4.4.1 Interferometry phase signal ruggedness
4.4.2 Fictitious example interferograms for analysis
4.4.3 Analysis of fictitious situations
Part C InSAR processing: a mathematical approach
1. Statistics of SAR and InSAR images
1.1 The backscattering process
1.1.1 Introduction
1.1.2 Artificial backscatterers
1.1.3 Natural backscatterers: the spectral shift principle
1.1.4 Statistics of the return
1.2 Interferometric images: coherence
1.2.1 Statistics of coherence estimators
1.2.2 Impact of the baseline on coherence
1.3 Power spectrum of interferometric images
1.4 Causes of coherence loss
1.4.1 Noise, temporal change
1.4.2 Volumetric effects
2. Focusing, interferometry and slope estimate
2.1 SAR model: acquisition and focusing
2.1.1 Phase preserving focusing
2.1.2 CEOS offset processing test
2.2 Interferometric SAR processing
2.2.1 Spectral shift and common band filtering (revisited)
2.3 DEM generation: optimal slope estimate
2.4 Noise sources
2.5 Processing decorrelation artefacts
2.5.1 Examples of decorrelation sources
3. Advances in phase unwrapping
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Residues and charges
3.2.1 Effects of noise: pairs of residues, undefined positions of the ‘ghost lines’
3.2.2 Effects of alias: unknown position of the ghost lines
3.3 Optimal topographies under the Lp norm
3.3.1 L2, L1, L0 , optimal topographies
3.3.2 Slope estimates
3.3.3 Removal of low resolution estimates of the topography
3.3.4 Bias of the slope estimate
3.4 Analysis in the wave-number domain
3.4.1 L2 optimisation in the wave-number domain
3.5 Weighting factors in the optimisation
4. Multiple image combination for DEM generation and ground motion estimation
4.1 Multi-baseline phase unwrapping for InSAR topography estimation
4.2 Applications to repeat-pass interferometry
4.2.1 Example 1: the Vesuvius data set
4.2.2 Example 2: The Etna data set
4.3 The ‘Permanent Scatterers’ technique
4.3.1 Space-time estimation
4.3.2 Subsidence in Pomona
4.3.3 Ground slip along the Hayward fault
4.3.4 Seasonal deformation in the Santa Clara Valley
5. Applications based on spectral shift
5.1 Introduction to spectral shift
5.2 Interferometric quick look (IQL)
5.3 Super-resolution
6. Differential interferometry
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Differential interferometry using an available DEM
6.3 Differential interferometry with three or more combined images
6.4 Techniques to avoid phase unwrapping
6.4.1 Integer combination
6.4.2 Interferogram stacking
6.5 Information contained in interferometricmeasurements
6.5.1 Residual orbital fringes
6.5.2 Uncorrected topography
6.5.3 Heterogeneous troposphere
6.5.4 Heterogeneous ionosphere
6.5.5 Static atmosphere
6.5.6 Radar clock drift
7. Envisat-ASAR interferometric techniques and applications
7.1 Introduction
7.2 ScanSAR: an introduction
7.2.1 Acquisition
7.2.2 Focusing
7.3 ScanSAR interferometry
7.3.1 Common band (CB) filtering
7.4 Multi-mode SAR interferometry
7.4.1 Multi-mode interferometric combination
7.5 Applications
7.5.1 AP/AP and AP/IM interferometry
7.5.2 WSM/WSM and WSM/IM interferometry
8. ERS-Envisat interferometry
8.1 Introduction
8.2 ERS-Envisat interferometric combination
8.3 Frequency gap compensation
8.4 Vertical accuracy
8.5 Altitude of ambiguity
8.6 Effect of volume scattering
8.7 Experimental results
Reference Documents
TM-19
February 2007
InSAR Principles:
Guidelines for SAR Interferometry
Processing and Interpretation
TM-19 _________________________________________________________________________ InSAR Principles
Acknowledgements
Authors:
Alessandro Ferretti, Andrea Monti-Guarnieri, Claudio Prati, Fabio Rocca
Dipartimento di Elettronica ed Informazione, Politecnico di Milano, Italy
Didier Massonnet
CNES, Toulouse, France
Technical coordination:
Juerg Lichtenegger
ESA/ESRIN (retired), Frascati, Italy
InSAR Principles: Guidelines for SAR
Interferometry Processing and Interpretation
(TM-19, February 2007)
Karen Fletcher
Editor:
Published and distributed by: ESA Publications
ESTEC
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Tel: +31 71 565 3400
Fax: +31 71 565 5433
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© 2007 European Space Agency
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ii
______________________________________________________________________________ Table of Contents
Table of Contents
Scope
............................................................................................. viii
1.1.1
1.1.2
Part A Interferometric SAR image processing and interpretation
1. Synthetic Aperture Radar basics......................................................... A-3
1.1 Introduction................................................................................. A-3
Introduction to ERS ....................................................... A-3
Introduction to Envisat................................................... A-4
1.2 SAR images of the Earth’s surface ............................................. A-5
1.2.1 What is a strip-map SAR imaging system?.................... A-5
1.2.2 What is a complex SAR image?..................................... A-6
1.2.3 SAR resolution cell projection on the ground.............. A-11
2. SAR interferometry: applications and limits .................................... A-17
2.1 Introduction............................................................................... A-17
2.2 Terrain altitude measurement through the interferometric
phase ......................................................................................... A-18
2.2.1
Interferogram flattening ............................................... A-19
2.2.2 Altitude of ambiguity................................................... A-20
2.2.3 Phase unwrapping and DEM generation...................... A-20
2.3 Terrain motion measurement: Differential Interferometry ....... A-23
2.4 The atmospheric contribution to the interferometric phase ...... A-24
2.5 Other phase noise sources......................................................... A-25
2.6 Coherence maps........................................................................ A-26
3. SAR Differential Interferometry basics and examples..................... A-31
3.1 Introduction............................................................................... A-31
3.2 Landers co-seismic deformation ............................................... A-31
3.3 Small earthquake modelling ..................................................... A-33
3.4 The quiet but complicated deformation after an earthquake..... A-35
3.5 A case of coherence loss: India................................................. A-37
3.6 A case of damaged raw data, studying a large earthquake in
Chile.......................................................................................... A-38
Part B InSAR processing: a practical approach
1. Selecting ERS images for InSAR processing..................................... B-3
1.1 Introduction................................................................................. B-3
1.2 Available information about ERS images................................... B-3
1.2.1 The ESA on-line multi-mission catalogue ..................... B-3
1.2.2 DESCW.......................................................................... B-4
1.2.3 Expected coherence (prototype)..................................... B-6
1.3 Selecting images for InSAR DEM generation............................ B-8
1.4 Selecting images for Differential InSAR applications................ B-9
Interferogram generation .................................................................. B-11
2.
iii
TM-19 _________________________________________________________________________ InSAR Principles
2.1 Introduction................................................................................B-11
2.2 Generation of synthetic fringes..................................................B-12
2.3 Co-registering ............................................................................B-13
2.3.1 Co-registering coefficients............................................B-14
2.3.2 Co-registering parameter estimation.............................B-16
2.3.3
Implementation of resampling ......................................B-17
2.4 Master and slave oversampling..................................................B-17
2.5 Range spectral shift & azimuth common bandwidth filtering ...B-18
2.5.1 Range spectral shift filtering.........................................B-18
2.5.2 Azimuth common band filtering...................................B-20
2.6 Interferogram computation ........................................................B-22
2.6.1 Complex multi-looking.................................................B-24
2.6.2 Generation of coherence maps......................................B-26
2.7 Applications of coherence ........................................................B-27
2.8 Interferogram geocoding & mosaicking ....................................B-29
InSAR DEM reconstruction .............................................................B-31
3.1 Introduction................................................................................B-31
3.2 Processing chain and data selection...........................................B-31
3.3 Phase unwrapping techniques for InSAR DEM reconstruction.B-33
3.3.1 What are we looking for?..............................................B-34
3.3.2 Case p=2, Unweighted Least Mean Squares method ...B-37
3.3.3 Case p=2, Weighted Least Mean Squares method .......B-38
3.3.4 Case p=1, Minimum Cost Flow method.......................B-38
3.3.5 Case p=0, Branch-Cut and other minimum L 0
methods.........................................................................B-39
3.3.6 Outlook .........................................................................B-41
3.4 From phase to elevation.............................................................B-42
3.4.1 Polynomial approximation of satellite orbits, point
3.
the estimated
localisation and data geocoding ....................................B-42
3.4.2 Data resampling ............................................................B-45
3.4.3
Impact of baseline errors on
topography ....................................................................B-45
3.4.4 Precise orbit determination ..........................................B-47
3.5 Error sources, multi-baseline strategies and data fusion............B-48
3.5.1 Multi-interferogram InSAR DEM reconstruction.........B-50
3.6 Combination of ascending and descending passes ....................B-53
3.7 Conclusions................................................................................B-55
4. Differential Inteferometry (DInSAR)................................................B-57
4.1 Examples of differential interferometry on land........................B-57
4.1.1 Physical changes ...........................................................B-57
4.1.2 Volcano: Okmok...........................................................B-57
4.1.3 Surface rupture: Superstition Hill .................................B-58
4.1.4 Subsidence: East Mesa..................................................B-60
4.2 Example of differential interferometry on ice ...........................B-62
4.3 Review of various criteria for data selection .............................B-63
iv
______________________________________________________________________________ Table of Contents
4.4 Interferometric interpretation.................................................... B-63
4.4.1
Interferometry phase signal ruggedness....................... B-64
4.4.2 Fictitious example interferograms for analysis ............ B-65
4.4.3 Analysis of fictitious situations.................................... B-67
Part C InSAR processing: a mathematical approach
1. Statistics of SAR and InSAR images.................................................. C-3
1.1 The backscattering process ......................................................... C-3
1.1.1
Introduction.................................................................... C-3
1.1.2 Artificial backscatterers ................................................. C-3
1.1.3 Natural backscatterers: the spectral shift principle ........ C-4
1.1.4 Statistics of the return .................................................... C-7
1.2 Interferometric images: coherence.............................................. C-8
1.2.1 Statistics of coherence estimators .................................. C-9
1.2.2
Impact of the baseline on coherence ............................ C-12
1.3 Power spectrum of interferometric images ............................... C-13
1.4 Causes of coherence loss .......................................................... C-13
1.4.1 Noise, temporal change................................................ C-13
1.4.2 Volumetric effects........................................................ C-13
2. Focusing, interferometry and slope estimate .................................... C-15
2.1 SAR model: acquisition and focusing....................................... C-15
2.1.1 Phase preserving focusing............................................ C-15
2.1.2 CEOS offset processing test......................................... C-18
2.2 Interferometric SAR processing ............................................... C-18
2.2.1 Spectral shift and common band filtering (revisited)... C-19
2.3 DEM generation: optimal slope estimate.................................. C-21
2.4 Noise sources ............................................................................ C-24
2.5 Processing decorrelation artefacts............................................. C-25
2.5.1 Examples of decorrelation sources............................... C-25
3. Advances in phase unwrapping ........................................................ C-29
3.1 Introduction............................................................................... C-29
3.2 Residues and charges ................................................................ C-31
3.2.1 Effects of noise: pairs of residues, undefined
positions of the ‘ghost lines’ ........................................ C-33
3.2.2 Effects of alias: unknown position of the ghost lines... C-36
3.3 Optimal topographies under the L p norm.................................. C-37
3.3.1 L 2, L 1, L 0 optimal topographies ................................... C-37
3.3.2 Slope estimates............................................................. C-40
3.3.3 Removal of
resolution estimates of
topography ................................................................... C-41
3.3.4 Bias of the slope estimate............................................. C-41
3.4 Analysis in the wave-number domain....................................... C-42
3.4.1 L 2 optimisation in the wave-number domain............... C-42
3.5 Weighting factors in the optimisation....................................... C-43
low
the
v
TM-19 _________________________________________________________________________ InSAR Principles
4. Multiple image combination for DEM generation and ground
motion estimation ..............................................................................C-45
4.1 Multi-baseline phase unwrapping for InSAR topography
estimation...................................................................................C-45
4.2 Applications to repeat-pass interferometry................................C-48
4.2.1 Example 1: the Vesuvius data set .................................C-50
4.2.2 Example 2: The Etna data set........................................C-53
4.3 The ‘Permanent Scatterers’ technique .......................................C-56
4.3.1 Space-time estimation...................................................C-58
4.3.2 Subsidence in Pomona .................................................C-59
4.3.3 Ground slip along the Hayward fault............................C-62
4.3.4 Seasonal deformation in the Santa Clara Valley...........C-63
5. Applications based on spectral shift .................................................C-65
5.1 Introduction to spectral shift ......................................................C-65
5.2 Interferometric quick look (IQL)...............................................C-67
5.3 Super-resolution.........................................................................C-69
6. Differential interferometry ................................................................C-71
6.1 Introduction................................................................................C-71
6.2 Differential interferometry using an available DEM .................C-72
6.3 Differential interferometry with three or more combined
6.4.1
6.4.2
images ........................................................................................C-77
6.4 Techniques to avoid phase unwrapping.....................................C-79
Integer combination ......................................................C-79
Interferogram stacking ..................................................C-82
6.5 Information contained in interferometric measurements...........C-83
6.5.1 Residual orbital fringes .................................................C-83
6.5.2 Uncorrected topography................................................C-86
6.5.3 Heterogeneous troposphere...........................................C-86
6.5.4 Heterogeneous ionosphere ............................................C-87
6.5.5 Static atmosphere..........................................................C-88
6.5.6 Radar clock drift ...........................................................C-88
7. Envisat-ASAR interferometric techniques and applications .............C-91
7.1 Introduction................................................................................C-91
7.2 ScanSAR: an introduction .........................................................C-92
7.2.1 Acquisition....................................................................C-93
7.2.2 Focusing........................................................................C-94
7.3 ScanSAR interferometry............................................................C-96
7.3.1 Common band (CB) filtering ........................................C-97
7.4 Multi-mode SAR interferometry................................................C-98
7.4.1 Multi-mode interferometric combination......................C-98
7.5 Applications.............................................................................C-101
7.5.1 AP/AP/IM interferometry ...........................................C-101
7.5.2 WSM/WSM and WSM/IM interferometry .................C-102
8. ERS-Envisat interferometry ............................................................C-107
8.1 Introduction..............................................................................C-107
vi
______________________________________________________________________________ Table of Contents
8.2 ERS-Envisat interferometric combination.............................. C-107
8.3 Frequency gap compensation.................................................. C-108
8.4 Vertical accuracy .................................................................... C-108
8.5 Altitude of ambiguity.............................................................. C-109
8.6 Effect of volume scattering..................................................... C-110
8.7 Experimental results................................................................ C-110
References ............................................................................................I
vii
TM-19 _________________________________________________________________________ InSAR Principles
Scope
This manual has been produced as a text book to introduce radar
interferometry to remote sensing specialists. It consists of three parts.
Part A is meant for readers who already have a good knowledge of optical
and microwave remote sensing, to acquaint them with interferometric SAR
image processing and interpretation.
Part B provides a practical approach and the technical background for
people who are starting up with InSAR processing.
In Part C a more mathematical approach can be found, for a deeper
understanding of the interferometric process. There, the manual also
includes an appreciation of themes such as super resolution and ERS/Envisat
interferometry.
viii
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