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The Linux Programming Interface - A Linux and UNIX System Progra....pdf
Preface
1: History and Standards
1.1 A Brief History of UNIX and C
1.2 A Brief History of Linux
1.2.1 The GNU Project
1.2.2 The Linux Kernel
1.3 Standardization
1.3.1 The C Programming Language
1.3.2 The First POSIX Standards
1.3.3 X/Open Company and The Open Group
1.3.4 SUSv3 and POSIX.1-2001
1.3.5 SUSv4 and POSIX.1-2008
1.3.6 UNIX Standards Timeline
1.3.7 Implementation Standards
1.3.8 Linux, Standards, and the Linux Standard Base
1.4 Summary
2: Fundamental Concepts
2.1 The Core Operating System: The Kernel
2.2 The Shell
2.3 Users and Groups
2.4 Single Directory Hierarchy, Directories, Links, and Files
2.5 File I/O Model
2.6 Programs
2.7 Processes
2.8 Memory Mappings
2.9 Static and Shared Libraries
2.10 Interprocess Communication and Synchronization
2.11 Signals
2.12 Threads
2.13 Process Groups and Shell Job Control
2.14 Sessions, Controlling Terminals, and Controlling Processes
2.15 Pseudoterminals
2.16 Date and Time
2.17 Client-Server Architecture
2.18 Realtime
2.19 The /proc File System
2.20 Summary
3: System Programming Concepts
3.1 System Calls
3.2 Library Functions
3.3 The Standard C Library; The GNU C Library ( glibc)
3.4 Handling Errors from System Calls and Library Functions
3.5 Notes on the Example Programs in This Book
3.5.1 Command-Line Options and Arguments
3.5.2 Common Functions and Header Files
3.6 Portability Issues
3.6.1 Feature Test Macros
3.6.2 System Data Types
3.6.3 Miscellaneous Portability Issues
3.7 Summary
3.8 Exercise
4: File I/O: The Universal I/O Model
4.1 Overview
4.2 Universality of I/O
4.3 Opening a File: open()
4.3.1 The open() flags Argument
4.3.2 Errors from open()
4.3.3 The creat() System Call
4.4 Reading from a File: read()
4.5 Writing to a File: write()
4.6 Closing a File: close()
4.7 Changing the File Offset: lseek()
4.8 Operations Outside the Universal I/O Model: ioctl()
4.9 Summary
4.10 Exercises
5: File I/O: Further Details
5.1 Atomicity and Race Conditions
5.2 File Control Operations: fcntl()
5.3 Open File Status Flags
5.4 Relationship Between File Descriptors and Open Files
5.5 Duplicating File Descriptors
5.6 File I/O at a Specified Offset: pread() and pwrite()
5.7 Scatter-Gather I/O: readv() and writev()
5.8 Truncating a File: truncate() and ftruncate()
5.9 Nonblocking I/O
5.10 I/O on Large Files
5.11 The /dev/fd Directory
5.12 Creating Temporary Files
5.13 Summary
5.14 Exercises
6: Processes
6.1 Processes and Programs
6.2 Process ID and Parent Process ID
6.3 Memory Layout of a Process
6.4 Virtual Memory Management
6.5 The Stack and Stack Frames
6.6 Command-Line Arguments (argc, argv)
6.7 Environment List
6.8 Performing a Nonlocal Goto: setjmp() and long jmp()
6.9 Summary
6.10 Exercises
7: Memory Allocation
7.1 Allocating Memory on the Heap
7.1.1 Adjusting the Program Break: brk() and sbrk()
7.1.2 Allocating Memory on the Heap: malloc() and free()
7.1.3 Implementation of malloc() and free()
7.1.4 Other Methods of Allocating Memory on the Heap
7.2 Allocating Memory on the Stack: alloca()
7.3 Summary
7.4 Exercises
8: Users and Groups
8.1 The Password File: /etc/passwd
8.2 The Shadow Password File: /etc/shadow
8.3 The Group File: /etc/group
8.4 Retrieving User and Group Information
8.5 Password Encryption and User Authentication
8.6 Summary
8.7 Exercises
9: Process Credentials
9.1 Real User ID and Real Group ID
9.2 Effective User ID and Effective Group ID
9.3 Set-User-ID and Set-Group-ID Programs
9.4 Saved Set-User-ID and Saved Set-Group-ID
9.5 File-System User ID and File-System Group ID
9.6 Supplementary Group IDs
9.7 Retrieving and Modifying Process Credentials
9.7.1 Retrieving and Modifying Real, Effective, and Saved Set IDs
9.7.2 Retrieving and Modifying File-System IDs
9.7.3 Retrieving and Modifying Supplementary Group IDs
9.7.4 Summary of Calls for Modifying Process Credentials
9.7.5 Example: Displaying Process Credentials
9.8 Summary
9.9 Exercises
10: Time
10.1 Calendar Time
10.2 Time-Conversion Functions
10.2.1 Converting time_t to Printable Form
10.2.2 Converting Between time_t and Broken-Down Time
10.2.3 Converting Between Broken-Down Time and Printable Form
10.3 Timezones
10.4 Locales
10.5 Updating the System Clock
10.6 The Software Clock (Jiffies)
10.7 Process Time
10.8 Summary
10.9 Exercise
11: System Limits and Options
11.1 System Limits
11.2 Retrieving System Limits (and Options) at Run Time
11.3 Retrieving File-Related Limits (and Options) at Run Time
11.4 Indeterminate Limits
11.5 System Options
11.6 Summary
11.7 Exercises
12: System and Process Information
12.1 The /proc File System
12.1.1 Obtaining Information About a Process: /proc/PID
12.1.2 System Information Under /proc
12.1.3 Accessing /proc Files
12.2 System Identification: uname()
12.3 Summary
12.4 Exercises
13: File I/O Buffering
13.1 Kernel Buffering of File I/O: The Buffer Cache
13.2 Buffering in the stdio Library
13.3 Controlling Kernel Buffering of File I/O
13.4 Summary of I/O Buffering
13.5 Advising the Kernel About I/O Patterns
13.6 Bypassing the Buffer Cache: Direct I/O
13.7 Mixing Library Functions and System Calls for File I/O
13.8 Summary
13.9 Exercises
14: File Systems
14.1 Device Special Files (Devices)
14.2 Disks and Partitions
14.3 File Systems
14.4 I-nodes
14.5 The Virtual File System (VFS)
14.6 Journaling File Systems
14.7 Single Directory Hierarchy and Mount Points
14.8 Mounting and Unmounting File Systems
14.8.1 Mounting a File System: mount()
14.8.2 Unmounting a File System: umount() and umount2()
14.9 Advanced Mount Features
14.9.1 Mounting a File System at Multiple Mount Points
14.9.2 Stacking Multiple Mounts on the Same Mount Point
14.9.3 Mount Flags That Are Per-Mount Options
14.9.4 Bind Mounts
14.9.5 Recursive Bind Mounts
14.10 A Virtual Memory File System: tmpfs
14.11 Obtaining Information About a File System: statvfs()
14.12 Summary
14.13 Exercise
15:File Attributes
15.1 Retrieving File Information: stat()
15.2 File Timestamps
15.2.1 Changing File Timestamps with utime() and utimes()
15.2.2 Changing File Timestamps with utimensat() and futimens()
15.3 File Ownership
15.3.1 Ownership of New Files
15.3.2 Changing File Ownership: chown(), fchown(), and lchown()
15.4 File Permissions
15.4.1 Permissions on Regular Files
15.4.2 Permissions on Directories
15.4.3 Permission-Checking Algorithm
15.4.4 Checking File Accessibility: access()
15.4.5 Set-User-ID, Set-Group-ID, and Sticky Bits
15.4.6 The Process File Mode Creation Mask: umask()
15.4.7 Changing File Permissions: chmod() and fchmod()
15.5 I-node Flags (ext2 Extended File Attributes)
15.6 Summary
15.7 Exercises
16: Extended Attributes
16.1 Overview
16.2 Extended Attribute Implementation Details
16.3 System Calls for Manipulating Extended Attributes
16.4 Summary
16.5 Exercise
17: Access Control Lists
17.1 Overview
17.2 ACL Permission-Checking Algorithm
17.3 Long and Short Text Forms for ACLs
17.4 The ACL_MASK Entry and the ACL Group Class
17.5 The getfacl and setfacl Commands
17.6 Default ACLs and File Creation
17.7 ACL Implementation Limits
17.8 The ACL API
17.9 Summary
17.10 Exercise
18: Directories and Links
18.1 Directories and (Hard) Links
18.2 Symbolic (Soft) Links
18.3 Creating and Removing (Hard) Links: link() and unlink()
18.4 Changing the Name of a File: rename()
18.5 Working with Symbolic Links: symlink() and readlink()
18.6 Creating and Removing Directories: mkdir() and rmdir()
18.7 Removing a File or Directory: remove()
18.8 Reading Directories: opendir() and readdir()
18.9 File Tree Walking: nftw()
18.10 The Current Working Directory of a Process
18.11 Operating Relative to a Directory File Descriptor
18.12 Changing the Root Directory of a Process: chroot()
18.13 Resolving a Pathname: realpath()
18.14 Parsing Pathname Strings: dirname() and basename()
18.15 Summary
18.16 Exercises
19: Monitoring File Events
19.1 Overview
19.2 The inotify API
19.3 inotify Events
19.4 Reading inotify Events
19.5 Queue Limits and /proc Files
19.6 An Older System for Monitoring File Events: dnotify
19.7 Summary
19.8 Exercise
20: Signals: Fundamental Concepts
20.1 Concepts and Overview
20.2 Signal Types and Default Actions
20.3 Changing Signal Dispositions: signal()
20.4 Introduction to Signal Handlers
20.5 Sending Signals: kill()
20.6 Checking for the Existence of a Process
20.7 Other Ways of Sending Signals: raise() and killpg()
20.8 Displaying Signal Descriptions
20.9 Signal Sets
20.10 The Signal Mask (Blocking Signal Delivery)
20.11 Pending Signals
20.12 Signals Are Not Queued
20.13 Changing Signal Dispositions: sigaction()
20.14 Waiting for a Signal: pause()
20.15 Summary
20.16 Exercises
21: Signals: Signal Handlers
21.1 Designing Signal Handlers
21.1.1 Signals Are Not Queued (Revisited)
21.1.2 Reentrant and Async-Signal-Safe Functions
21.1.3 Global Variables and the sig_atomic_t Data Type
21.2 Other Methods of Terminating a Signal Handler
21.2.1 Performing a Nonlocal Goto from a Signal Handler
21.2.2 Terminating a Process Abnormally: abort()
21.3 Handling a Signal on an Alternate Stack: sigaltstack()
21.4 The SA_SIGINFO Flag
21.5 Interruption and Restarting of System Calls
21.6 Summary
21.7 Exercise
22: Signals: Advanced Features
22.1 Core Dump Files
22.2 Special Cases for Delivery, Disposition, and Handling
22.3 Interruptible and Uninterruptible Process Sleep States
22.4 Hardware-Generated Signals
22.5 Synchronous and Asynchronous Signal Generation
22.6 Timing and Order of Signal Delivery
22.7 Implementation and Portability of signal()
22.8 Realtime Signals
22.8.1 Sending Realtime Signals
22.8.2 Handling Realtime Signals
22.9 Waiting for a Signal Using a Mask: sigsuspend()
22.10 Synchronously Waiting for a Signal
22.11 Fetching Signals via a File Descriptor
22.12 Interprocess Communication with Signals
22.13 Earlier Signal APIs (System V and BSD)
22.14 Summary
22.15 Exercises
23: Timers and Sleeping
23.1 Interval Timers
23.2 Scheduling and Accuracy of Timers
23.3 Setting Timeouts on Blocking Operations
23.4 Suspending Execution for a Fixed Interval (Sleeping)
23.4.1 Low-Resolution Sleeping: sleep()
23.4.2 High-Resolution Sleeping: nanosleep()
23.5 POSIX Clocks
23.5.1 Retrieving the Value of a Clock: clock_gettime()
23.5.2 Setting the Value of a Clock: clock_settime()
23.5.3 Obtaining the Clock ID of a Specific Process or Thread
23.5.4 Improved High-Resolution Sleeping: clock_nanosleep()
23.6 POSIX Interval Timers
23.6.1 Creating a Timer: timer_create()
23.6.2 Arming and Disarming a Timer: timer_settime()
23.6.3 Retrieving the Current Value of a Timer: timer_gettime()
23.6.4 Deleting a Timer: timer_delete()
23.6.5 Notification via a Signal
23.6.6 Timer Overruns
23.6.7 Notification via a Thread
23.7 Timers That Notify via File Descriptors: the timerfd API
23.8 Summary
23.9 Exercises
24: Process Creation
24.1 Overview of fork(), exit(), wait(), and execve()
24.2 Creating a New Process: fork()
24.2.1 File Sharing Between Parent and Child
24.2.2 Memory Semantics of fork()
24.3 The vfork() System Call
24.4 Race Conditions After fork()
24.5 Avoiding Race Conditions by Synchronizing with Signals
24.6 Summary
24.7 Exercises
25: Process Termination
25.1 Terminating a Process: _exit() and exit()
25.2 Details of Process Termination
25.3 Exit Handlers
25.4 Interactions Between fork(), stdio Buffers, and _exit()
25.5 Summary
25.6 Exercise
26: Monitoring Child Processes
26.1 Waiting on a Child Process
26.1.1 The wait() System Call
26.1.2 The waitpid() System Call
26.1.3 The Wait Status Value
26.1.4 Process Termination from a Signal Handler
26.1.5 The waitid() System Call
26.1.6 The wait3() and wait4() System Calls
26.2 Orphans and Zombies
26.3 The SIGCHLD Signal
26.3.1 Establishing a Handler for SIGCHLD
26.3.2 Delivery of SIGCHLD for Stopped Children
26.3.3 Ignoring Dead Child Processes
26.4 Summary
26.5 Exercises
27: Program Execution
27.1 Executing a New Program: execve()
27.2 The exec() Library Functions
27.2.1 The PATH Environment Variable
27.2.2 Specifying Program Arguments as a List
27.2.3 Passing the Caller’s Environment to the New Program
27.2.4 Executing a File Referred to by a Descriptor: fexecve()
27.3 Interpreter Scripts
27.4 File Descriptors and exec()
27.5 Signals and exec()
27.6 Executing a Shell Command: system()
27.7 Implementing system()
27.8 Summary
27.9 Exercises
28: Process Creation and Program Execution in More Detail
28.1 Process Accounting
28.2 The clone() System Call
28.2.1 The clone() flags Argument
28.2.2 Extensions to waitpid() for Cloned Children
28.3 Speed of Process Creation
28.4 Effect of exec() and fork() on Process Attributes
28.5 Summary
28.6 Exercise
29: Threads: Introduction
29.1 Overview
29.2 Background Details of the Pthreads API
29.3 Thread Creation
29.4 Thread Termination
29.5 Thread IDs
29.6 Joining with a Terminated Thread
29.7 Detaching a Thread
29.8 Thread Attributes
29.9 Threads Versus Processes
29.10 Summary
29.11 Exercises
30: Threads: Thread Synchronization
30.1 Protecting Accesses to Shared Variables: Mutexes
30.1.1 Statically Allocated Mutexes
30.1.2 Locking and Unlocking a Mutex
30.1.3 Performance of Mutexes
30.1.4 Mutex Deadlocks
30.1.5 Dynamically Initializing a Mutex
30.1.6 Mutex Attributes
30.1.7 Mutex Types
30.2 Signaling Changes of State: Condition Variables
30.2.1 Statically Allocated Condition Variables
30.2.2 Signaling and Waiting on Condition Variables
30.2.3 Testing a Condition Variable’s Predicate
30.2.4 Example Program: Joining Any Terminated Thread
30.2.5 Dynamically Allocated Condition Variables
30.3 Summary
30.4 Exercises
31: Threads: Thread Safety and Per-Thread Storage
31.1 Thread Safety (and Reentrancy Revisited)
31.2 One-Time Initialization
31.3 Thread-Specific Data
31.3.1 Thread-Specific Data from the Library Function’s Perspective
31.3.2 Overview of the Thread-Specific Data API
31.3.3 Details of the Thread-Specific Data API
31.3.4 Employing the Thread-Specific Data API
31.3.5 Thread-Specific Data Implementation Limits
31.4 Thread-Local Storage
31.5 Summary
31.6 Exercises
32: Threads: Thread Cancellation
32.1 Canceling a Thread
32.2 Cancellation State and Type
32.3 Cancellation Points
32.4 Testing for Thread Cancellation
32.5 Cleanup Handlers
32.6 Asynchronous Cancelability
32.7 Summary
33: Threads: Further Details
33.1 Thread Stacks
33.2 Threads and Signals
33.2.1 How the UNIX Signal Model Maps to Threads
33.2.2 Manipulating the Thread Signal Mask
33.2.3 Sending a Signal to a Thread
33.2.4 Dealing with Asynchronous Signals Sanely
33.3 Threads and Process Control
33.4 Thread Implementation Models
33.5 Linux Implementations of POSIX Threads
33.5.1 LinuxThreads
33.5.2 NPTL
33.5.3 Which Threading Implementation?
33.6 Advanced Features of the Pthreads API
33.7 Summary
33.8 Exercises
34: Process Groups, Sessions, and Job Control
34.1 Overview
34.2 Process Groups
34.3 Sessions
34.4 Controlling Terminals and Controlling Processes
34.5 Foreground and Background Process Groups
34.6 The SIGHUP Signal
34.6.1 Handling of SIGHUP by the Shell
34.6.2 SIGHUP and Termination of the Controlling Process
34.7 Job Control
34.7.1 Using Job Control Within the Shell
34.7.2 Implementing Job Control
34.7.3 Handling Job-Control Signals
34.7.4 Orphaned Process Groups (and SIGHUP Revisited)
34.8 Summary
34.9 Exercises
35: Process Priorities and Scheduling
35.1 Process Priorities (Nice Values)
35.2 Overview of Realtime Process Scheduling
35.2.1 The SCHED_RR Policy
35.2.2 The SCHED_FIFO Policy
35.2.3 The SCHED_BATCH and SCHED_IDLE Policies
35.3 Realtime Process Scheduling API
35.3.1 Realtime Priority Ranges
35.3.2 Modifying and Retrieving Policies and Priorities
35.3.3 Relinquishing the CPU
35.3.4 The SCHED_RR Time Slice
35.4 CPU Affinity
35.5 Summary
35.6 Exercises
36: Process Resources
36.1 Process Resource Usage
36.2 Process Resource Limits
36.3 Details of Specific Resource Limits
36.4 Summary
36.5 Exercises
37: Daemons
37.1 Overview
37.2 Creating a Daemon
37.3 Guidelines for Writing Daemons
37.4 Using SIGHUP to Reinitialize a Daemon
37.5 Logging Messages and Errors Using syslog
37.5.1 Overview
37.5.2 The syslog API
37.5.3 The /etc/syslog.conf File
37.6 Summary
37.7 Exercise
38: Writing Secure Privileged Programs
38.1 Is a Set-User-ID or Set-Group-ID Program Required?
38.2 Operate with Least Privilege
38.3 Be Careful When Executing a Program
38.4 Avoid Exposing Sensitive Information
38.5 Confine the Process
38.6 Beware of Signals and Race Conditions
38.7 Pitfalls When Performing File Operations and File I/O
38.8 Don’t Trust Inputs or the Environment
38.9 Beware of Buffer Overruns
38.10 Beware of Denial-of-Service Attacks
38.11 Check Return Statuses and Fail Safely
38.12 Summary
38.13 Exercises
39: Capabilities
39.1 Rationale for Capabilities
39.2 The Linux Capabilities
39.3 Process and File Capabilities
39.3.1 Process Capabilities
39.3.2 File Capabilities
39.3.3 Purpose of the Process Permitted and Effective Capability Sets
39.3.4 Purpose of the File Permitted and Effective Capability Sets
39.3.5 Purpose of the Process and File Inheritable Sets
39.3.6 Assigning and Viewing File Capabilities from the Shell
39.4 The Modern Capabilities Implementation
39.5 Transformation of Process Capabilities During exec()
39.5.1 Capability Bounding Set
39.5.2 Preserving root Semantics
39.6 Effect on Process Capabilities of Changing User IDs
39.7 Changing Process Capabilities Programmatically
39.8 Creating Capabilities-Only Environments
39.9 Discovering the Capabilities Required by a Program
39.10 Older Kernels and Systems Without File Capabilities
39.11 Summary
39.12 Exercise
40: Login Accounting
40.1 Overview of the utmp and wtmp Files
40.2 The utmpx API
40.3 The utmpx Structure
40.4 Retrieving Information from the utmp and wtmp Files
40.5 Retrieving the Login Name: getlogin()
40.6 Updating the utmp and wtmp Files for a Login Session
40.7 The lastlog File
40.8 Summary
40.9 Exercises
41: Fundamentals of Shared Libraries
41.1 Object Libraries
41.2 Static Libraries
41.3 Overview of Shared Libraries
41.4 Creating and Using Shared Libraries-A First Pass
41.4.1 Creating a Shared Library
41.4.2 Position-Independent Code
41.4.3 Using a Shared Library
41.4.4 The Shared Library Soname
41.5 Useful Tools for Working with Shared Libraries
41.6 Shared Library Versions and Naming Conventions
41.7 Installing Shared Libraries
41.8 Compatible Versus Incompatible Libraries
41.9 Upgrading Shared Libraries
41.10 Specifying Library Search Directories in an Object File
41.11 Finding Shared Libraries at Run Time
41.12 Run-Time Symbol Resolution
41.13 Using a Static Library Instead of a Shared Library
41.14 Summary
41.15 Exercise
42: Advanced Features of Shared Libraries
42.1 Dynamically Loaded Libraries
42.1.1 Opening a Shared Library: dlopen()
42.1.2 Diagnosing Errors: dlerror()
42.1.3 Obtaining the Address of a Symbol: dlsym()
42.1.4 Closing a Shared Library: dlclose()
42.1.5 Obtaining Information About Loaded Symbols: dladdr()
42.1.6 Accessing Symbols in the Main Program
42.2 Controlling Symbol Visibility
42.3 Linker Version Scripts
42.3.1 Controlling Symbol Visibility with Version Scripts
42.3.2 Symbol Versioning
42.4 Initialization and Finalization Functions
42.5 Preloading Shared Libraries
42.6 Monitoring the Dynamic Linker: LD_DEBUG
42.7 Summary
42.8 Exercises
43: Interprocess Communication Overview
43.1 A Taxonomy of IPC Facilities
43.2 Communication Facilities
43.3 Synchronization Facilities
43.4 Comparing IPC Facilities
43.5 Summary
43.6 Exercises
44: Pipes and FIFOs
44.1 Overview
44.2 Creating and Using Pipes
44.3 Pipes as a Method of Process Synchronization
44.4 Using Pipes to Connect Filters
44.5 Talking to a Shell Command via a Pipe: popen()
44.6 Pipes and stdio Buffering
44.7 FIFOs
44.8 A Client-Server Application Using FIFOs
44.9 Nonblocking I/O
44.10 Semantics of read() and write() on Pipes and FIFOs
44.11 Summary
44.12 Exercises
45: Introduction to System V IPC
45.1 API Overview
45.2 IPC Keys
45.3 Associated Data Structure and Object Permissions
45.4 IPC Identifiers and Client-Server Applications
45.5 Algorithm Employed by System V IPC get Calls
45.6 The ipcs and ipcrm Commands
45.7 Obtaining a List of All IPC Objects
45.8 IPC Limits
45.9 Summary
45.10 Exercises
46: System V Message Queues
46.1 Creating or Opening a Message Queue
46.2 Exchanging Messages
46.2.1 Sending Messages
46.2.2 Receiving Messages
46.3 Message Queue Control Operations
46.4 Message Queue Associated Data Structure
46.5 Message Queue Limits
46.6 Displaying All Message Queues on the System
46.7 Client-Server Programming with Message Queues
46.8 A File-Server Application Using Message Queues
46.9 Disadvantages of System V Message Queues
46.10 Summary
46.11 Exercises
47: System V Semaphores
47.1 Overview
47.2 Creating or Opening a Semaphore Set
47.3 Semaphore Control Operations
47.4 Semaphore Associated Data Structure
47.5 Semaphore Initialization
47.6 Semaphore Operations
47.7 Handling of Multiple Blocked Semaphore Operations
47.8 Semaphore Undo Values
47.9 Implementing a Binary Semaphores Protocol
47.10 Semaphore Limits
47.11 Disadvantages of System V Semaphores
47.12 Summary
47.13 Exercises
48: System V Shared Memory
48.1 Overview
48.2 Creating or Opening a Shared Memory Segment
48.3 Using Shared Memory
48.4 Example: Transferring Data via Shared Memory
48.5 Location of Shared Memory in Virtual Memory
48.6 Storing Pointers in Shared Memory
48.7 Shared Memory Control Operations
48.8 Shared Memory Associated Data Structure
48.9 Shared Memory Limits
48.10 Summary
48.11 Exercises
49: Memory Mappings
49.1 Overview
49.2 Creating a Mapping: mmap()
49.3 Unmapping a Mapped Region: munmap()
49.4 File Mappings
49.4.1 Private File Mappings
49.4.2 Shared File Mappings
49.4.3 Boundary Cases
49.4.4 Memory Protection and File Access Mode Interactions
49.5 Synchronizing a Mapped Region: msync()
49.6 Additional mmap() Flags
49.7 Anonymous Mappings
49.8 Remapping a Mapped Region: mremap()
49.9 MAP_NORESERVE and Swap Space Overcommitting
49.10 The MAP_FIXED Flag
49.11 Nonlinear Mappings: remap_file_pages()
49.12 Summary
49.13 Exercises
50: Virtual Memory Operations
50.1 Changing Memory Protection: mprotect()
50.2 Memory Locking: mlock() and mlockall()
50.3 Determining Memory Residence: mincore()
50.4 Advising Future Memory Usage Patterns: madvise()
50.5 Summary
50.6 Exercises
51: Introduction to POSIX IPC
51.1 API Overview
51.2 Comparison of System V IPC and POSIX IPC
51.3 Summary
52: POSIX Message Queues
52.1 Overview
52.2 Opening, Closing, and Unlinking a Message Queue
52.3 Relationship Between Descriptors and Message Queues
52.4 Message Queue Attributes
52.5 Exchanging Messages
52.5.1 Sending Messages
52.5.2 Receiving Messages
52.5.3 Sending and Receiving Messages with a Timeout
52.6 Message Notification
52.6.1 Receiving Notification via a Signal
52.6.2 Receiving Notification via a Thread
52.7 Linux-Specific Features
52.8 Message Queue Limits
52.9 Comparison of POSIX and System V Message Queues
52.10 Summary
52.11 Exercises
53: POSIX Semaphores
53.1 Overview
53.2 Named Semaphores
53.2.1 Opening a Named Semaphore
53.2.2 Closing a Semaphore
53.2.3 Removing a Named Semaphore
53.3 Semaphore Operations
53.3.1 Waiting on a Semaphore
53.3.2 Posting a Semaphore
53.3.3 Retrieving the Current Value of a Semaphore
53.4 Unnamed Semaphores
53.4.1 Initializing an Unnamed Semaphore
53.4.2 Destroying an Unnamed Semaphore
53.5 Comparisons with Other Synchronization Techniques
53.6 Semaphore Limits
53.7 Summary
53.8 Exercises
54: POSIX Shared Memory
54.1 Overview
54.2 Creating Shared Memory Objects
54.3 Using Shared Memory Objects
54.4 Removing Shared Memory Objects
54.5 Comparisons Between Shared Memory APIs
54.6 Summary
54.7 Exercise
55: File Locking
55.1 Overview
55.2 File Locking with flock()
55.2.1 Semantics of Lock Inheritance and Release
55.2.2 Limitations of flock()
55.3 Record Locking with fcntl()
55.3.1 Deadlock
55.3.2 Example: An Interactive Locking Program
55.3.3 Example: A Library of Locking Functions
55.3.4 Lock Limits and Performance
55.3.5 Semantics of Lock Inheritance and Release
55.3.6 Lock Starvation and Priority of Queued Lock Requests
55.4 Mandatory Locking
55.5 The /proc/locks File
55.6 Running Just One Instance of a Program
55.7 Older Locking Techniques
55.8 Summary
55.9 Exercises
56: Sockets: Introduction
56.1 Overview
56.2 Creating a Socket: socket()
56.3 Binding a Socket to an Address: bind()
56.4 Generic Socket Address Structures: struct sockaddr
56.5 Stream Sockets
56.5.1 Listening for Incoming Connections: listen()
56.5.2 Accepting a Connection: accept()
56.5.3 Connecting to a Peer Socket: connect()
56.5.4 I/O on Stream Sockets
56.5.5 Connection Termination: close()
56.6 Datagram Sockets
56.6.1 Exchanging Datagrams: recvfrom() and sendto()
56.6.2 Using connect() with Datagram Sockets
56.7 Summary
57: Sockets: UNIX Domain
57.1 UNIX Domain Socket Addresses: struct sockaddr_un
57.2 Stream Sockets in the UNIX Domain
57.3 Datagram Sockets in the UNIX Domain
57.4 UNIX Domain Socket Permissions
57.5 Creating a Connected Socket Pair: socketpair()
57.6 The Linux Abstract Socket Namespace
57.7 Summary
57.8 Exercises
58: Sockets: Fundamentals of TCP/IP Networks
58.1 Internets
58.2 Networking Protocols and Layers
58.3 The Data-Link Layer
58.4 The Network Layer: IP
58.5 IP Addresses
58.6 The Transport Layer
58.6.1 Port Numbers
58.6.2 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
58.6.3 Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
58.7 Requests for Comments (RFCs)
58.8 Summary
59: Sockets: Internet Domains
59.1 Internet Domain Sockets
59.2 Network Byte Order
59.3 Data Representation
59.4 Internet Socket Addresses
59.5 Overview of Host and Service Conversion Functions
59.6 The inet_pton() and inet_ntop() Functions
59.7 Client-Server Example (Datagram Sockets)
59.8 Domain Name System (DNS)
59.9 The /etc/services File
59.10 Protocol-Independent Host and Service Conversion
59.10.1 The getaddrinfo() Function
59.10.2 Freeing addrinfo Lists: freeaddrinfo()
59.10.3 Diagnosing Errors: gai_strerror()
59.10.4 The getnameinfo() Function
59.11 Client-Server Example (Stream Sockets)
59.12 An Internet Domain Sockets Library
59.13 Obsolete APIs for Host and Service Conversions
59.13.1 The inet_aton() and inet_ntoa() Functions
59.13.2 The gethostbyname() and gethostbyaddr() Functions
59.13.3 The getservbyname() and getservbyport() Functions
59.14 UNIX Versus Internet Domain Sockets
59.15 Further Information
59.16 Summary
59.17 Exercises
60: Sockets: Server Design
60.1 Iterative and Concurrent Servers
60.2 An Iterative UDP echo Server
60.3 A Concurrent TCP echo Server
60.4 Other Concurrent Server Designs
60.5 The inetd (Internet Superserver) Daemon
60.6 Summary
60.7 Exercises
61: Sockets: Advanced Topics
61.1 Partial Reads and Writes on Stream Sockets
61.2 The shutdown() System Call
61.3 Socket-Specific I/O System Calls: recv() and send()
61.4 The sendfile() System Call
61.5 Retrieving Socket Addresses
61.6 A Closer Look at TCP
61.6.1 Format of a TCP Segment
61.6.2 TCP Sequence Numbers and Acknowledgements
61.6.3 TCP State Machine and State Transition Diagram
61.6.4 TCP Connection Establishment
61.6.5 TCP Connection Termination
61.6.6 Calling shutdown() on a TCP Socket
61.6.7 The TIME_WAIT State
61.7 Monitoring Sockets: netstat
61.8 Using tcpdump to Monitor TCP Traffic
61.9 Socket Options
61.10 The SO_REUSEADDR Socket Option
61.11 Inheritance of Flags and Options Across accept()
61.12 TCP Versus UDP
61.13 Advanced Features
61.13.1 Out-of-Band Data
61.13.2 The sendmsg() and recvmsg() System Calls
61.13.3 Passing File Descriptors
61.13.4 Receiving Sender Credentials
61.13.5 Sequenced-Packet Sockets
61.13.6 SCTP and DCCP Transport-Layer Protocols
61.14 Summary
61.15 Exercises
62: Terminals
62.1 Overview
62.2 Retrieving and Modifying Terminal Attributes
62.3 The stty Command
62.4 Terminal Special Characters
62.5 Terminal Flags
62.6 Terminal I/O Modes
62.6.1 Canonical Mode
62.6.2 Noncanonical Mode
62.6.3 Cooked, Cbreak, and Raw Modes
62.7 Terminal Line Speed (Bit Rate)
62.8 Terminal Line Control
62.9 Terminal Window Size
62.10 Terminal Identification
62.11 Summary
62.12 Exercises
63: Alternative I/O Models
63.1 Overview
63.1.1 Level-Triggered and Edge-Triggered Notification
63.1.2 Employing Nonblocking I/O with Alternative I/O Models
63.2 I/O Multiplexing
63.2.1 The select() System Call
63.2.2 The poll() System Call
63.2.3 When Is a File Descriptor Ready?
63.2.4 Comparison of select() and poll()
63.2.5 Problems with select() and poll()
63.3 Signal-Driven I/O
63.3.1 When Is “I/O Possible” Signaled?
63.3.2 Refining the Use of Signal-Driven I/O
63.4 The epoll API
63.4.1 Creating an epoll Instance: epoll_create()
63.4.2 Modifying the epoll Interest List: epoll_ctl()
63.4.3 Waiting for Events: epoll_wait()
63.4.4 A Closer Look at epoll Semantics
63.4.5 Performance of epoll Versus I/O Multiplexing
63.4.6 Edge-Triggered Notification
63.5 Waiting on Signals and File Descriptors
63.5.1 The pselect() System Call
63.5.2 The Self-Pipe Trick
63.6 Summary
63.7 Exercises
64: Pseudoterminals
64.1 Overview
64.2 UNIX 98 Pseudoterminals
64.2.1 Opening an Unused Master: posix_openpt()
64.2.2 Changing Slave Ownership and Permissions: grantpt()
64.2.3 Unlocking the Slave: unlockpt()
64.2.4 Obtaining the Name of the Slave: ptsname()
64.3 Opening a Master: ptyMasterOpen()
64.4 Connecting Processes with a Pseudoterminal: ptyFork()
64.5 Pseudoterminal I/O
64.6 Implementing script(1)
64.7 Terminal Attributes and Window Size
64.8 BSD Pseudoterminals
64.9 Summary
64.10 Exercises
A: Tracing System Calls
B: Parsing Command-Line Options
C: Casting the NULL Pointer
D: Kernel Configuration
E: Further Sources of Information
F: Solutions to Selected Exercises
Bibliography
Index
The Linux
Programming
inTerface
A Linux and UNIX® System Programming Handbook
Michael KerrisK
The definiTive guide To Linux
and unix® sysTem Programming
The Linux Programming Interface is the definitive guide
to the Linux and UNIX programming interface—the
interface employed by nearly every application that
runs on a Linux or UNIX system.
In this authoritative work, Linux programming
expert Michael Kerrisk provides detailed descriptions
of the system calls and library functions that you need
in order to master the craft of system programming,
and accompanies his explanations with clear, complete
example programs.
You’ll find descriptions of over 500 system calls
and library functions, and more than 200 example pro-
grams, 88 tables, and 115 diagrams. You’ll learn how to:
f Read and write files efficiently
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f Write secure programs
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message queues, shared memory, and semaphores
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While The Linux Programming Interface covers a wealth
of Linux-specific features, including epoll, inotify, and
the /proc file system, its emphasis on UNIX standards
(POSIX.1-2001/SUSv3 and POSIX.1-2008/SUSv4)
makes it equally valuable to programmers working on
other UNIX platforms.
The Linux Programming Interface is the most com-
prehensive single-volume work on the Linux and UNIX
programming interface, and a book that’s destined to
become a new classic.
about the author
Michael Kerrisk (http://man7.org/) has been using and programming UNIX systems
for more than 20 years, and has taught many week-long courses on UNIX system
programming. Since 2004, he has maintained the man-pages project, which
produces the manual pages describing the Linux kernel and glibc programming
APIs. He has written or cowritten more than 250 of the manual pages and is actively
involved in the testing and design review of new Linux kernel-userspace interfaces.
Michael lives with his family in Munich, Germany.
covers current uNiX standards (PosiX.1-2001/susv3 and PosiX.1-2008/susv4)
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PRAISE FOR THE LINUX PROGRAMMING INTERFACE
“If I had to choose a single book to sit next to my machine when writing
software for Linux, this would be it.”
—MARTIN LANDERS, SOFTWARE ENGINEER, GOOGLE
“This book, with its detailed descriptions and examples, contains everything
you need to understand the details and nuances of the low-level programming
APIs in Linux . . . no matter what the level of reader, there will be something
to be learnt from this book.”
—MEL GORMAN, AUTHOR OF Understanding the Linux Virtual Memory Manager
“Michael Kerrisk has not only written a great book about Linux programming
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noticed got fixed and the man pages were (greatly) improved. In all three
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for both new and experienced Linux programmers.”
—ANDREAS JAEGER, PROGRAM MANAGER, OPENSUSE, NOVELL
“Michael’s inexhaustible determination to get his information right, and to
express it clearly and concisely, has resulted in a strong reference source for
programmers. While this work is targeted at Linux programmers, it will be of
value to any programmer working in the UNIX/POSIX ecosystem.”
—DAVID BUTENHOF, AUTHOR OF Programming with POSIX Threads AND
CONTRIBUTOR TO THE POSIX AND UNIX STANDARDS
“ . . . a very thorough—yet easy to read—explanation of UNIX system and
network programming, with an emphasis on Linux systems. It’s certainly a
book I’d recommend to anybody wanting to get into UNIX programming
(in general) or to experienced UNIX programmers wanting to know ‘what’s
new’ in the popular GNU/Linux system.”
—FERNANDO GONT, NETWORK SECURITY RESEARCHER, IETF PARTICIPANT, AND
RFC AUTHOR
“ . . . encyclopedic in the breadth and depth of its coverage, and textbook-
like in its wealth of worked examples and exercises. Each topic is clearly
and comprehensively covered, from theory to hands-on working code.
Professionals, students, educators, this is the Linux/UNIX reference that
you have been waiting for.”
—ANTHONY ROBINS, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR OF COMPUTER SCIENCE, THE
UNIVERSITY OF OTAGO
“I’ve been very impressed by the precision, the quality and the level of detail
Michael Kerrisk put in his book. He is a great expert of Linux system calls
and lets us share his knowledge and understanding of the Linux APIs.”
—CHRISTOPHE BLAESS, AUTHOR OF Programmation système en C sous Linux
“ . . . an essential resource for the serious or professional Linux and UNIX
systems programmer. Michael Kerrisk covers the use of all the key APIs
across both the Linux and UNIX system interfaces with clear descriptions
and tutorial examples and stresses the importance and benefits of following
standards such as the Single UNIX Specification and POSIX 1003.1.”
—ANDREW JOSEY, DIRECTOR, STANDARDS, THE OPEN GROUP, AND CHAIR OF
THE POSIX 1003.1 WORKING GROUP
“What could be better than an encyclopedic reference to the Linux system,
from the standpoint of the system programmer, written by none other than
the maintainer of the man pages himself? The Linux Programming Interface is
comprehensive and detailed. I firmly expect it to become an indispensable
addition to my programming bookshelf.”
—BILL GALLMEISTER, AUTHOR OF POSIX.4 Programmer’s Guide: Programming for
the Real World
“ . . . the most complete and up-to-date book about Linux and UNIX system
programming. If you’re new to Linux system programming, if you’re a UNIX
veteran focused on portability while interested in learning the Linux way,
or if you’re simply looking for an excellent reference about the Linux pro-
gramming interface, then Michael Kerrisk’s book is definitely the companion
you want on your bookshelf.”
—LOÏC DOMAIGNÉ, CHIEF SOFTWARE ARCHITECT (EMBEDDED), CORPULS.COM
San Francisco
THE LINUX PROGRAMMING INTERFACE. Copyright © 2010 by Michael Kerrisk.
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Kerrisk, Michael, 1961-
The Linux programming interface : a Linux and UNIX system programming handbook / by Michael Kerrisk.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-59327-220-3 (hardcover)
ISBN-10: 1-59327-220-0 (hardcover)
1. Linux. 2. UNIX (Computer file) 3. Operating systems (Computers) I. Title.
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