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光刻原理Principles of Lithography.pdf

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    Contents
    Preface to the Third Edition
    Preface to the Second Edition
    Preface
    Chapter 1 Overview of Lithography
    Chapter 2 Optical Pattern Formation
    Chapter 3 Photoresists
    Chapter 4 Modeling and Thin-Film Effects
    Chapter 5 Wafer Steppers
    Chapter 6 Overlay
    Chapter 7 Masks and Reticles
    Chapter 8 Confronting the Diffraction Limit
    Chapter 9 Metrology
    Chapter 10 Immersion Lithography and the Limits of Optical Lithography
    Chapter 11 Lithography Costs
    Chapter 12 Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography
    Chapter 13 Alternative LithographyTechniques
    Appendix A Coherence
    Index
    COLOR PLATES
    Principles of LithographyThird Edition
    Bellingham, Washington USAPrinciples of LithographyThird EditionHarry J. Levinson
    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Levinson, Harry J. Principles of lithography / Harry J. Levinson. – 3rd ed. p. cm. – (Press monograph ; 198) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-8194-8324-9 1. Integrated circuits–Design and construction. 2. Microlithography. I. Title. TK7874.L397 2010 621.381531–dc22 2010026775 Published by SPIE P.O. Box 10 Bellingham, Washington 98227-0010 USA Phone: +1 360.676.3290 Fax: +1 360.647.1445 Email: Books@spie.org Web: http://spie.org Copyright c 2010 Society of Photo-Optical Instrumentation Engineers All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means without written permission of the publisher. The content of this book reflects the work and thought of the author(s). Every effort has been made to publish reliable and accurate information herein, but the publisher is not responsible for the validity of the information or for any outcomes resulting from reliance thereon. Printed in the United States of America.
    Contents Preface to the Third Edition ........................................................................... ix Preface to the Second Edition....................................................................... xi Preface............................................................................................................... xiii Chapter 1 Overview of Lithography ................................................................ Problems........................................................................................................................... Chapter 2 Optical Pattern Formation .............................................................. 1 6 7 The Problem of Imaging................................................................................ 2.1 7 Aerial Images .................................................................................................... 2.2 9 The Contributions of Physics and Chemistry ......................................... 22 2.3 2.4 Focus .................................................................................................................... 32 Problems........................................................................................................................... 46 References ....................................................................................................................... 47 Chapter 3 Photoresists ................................................................................... 51 Positive and Negative Resists....................................................................... 51 3.1 Adhesion Promotion ....................................................................................... 54 3.2 Resist Spin Coating, Softbake, and Hardbake........................................ 57 3.3 Photochemistry of Novolak/DNQ g- and i-line Resists ...................... 68 3.4 Acid-Catalyzed DUV Resists ...................................................................... 70 3.5 Development and Post-Exposure Bakes................................................... 76 3.6 Operational Characterization ....................................................................... 81 3.7 3.8 Line-Edge Roughness..................................................................................... 82 3.9 Multilayer Resist Processes .......................................................................... 92 Problems........................................................................................................................... 95 References ....................................................................................................................... 96 Chapter 4 Modeling and Thin-Film Effects ..................................................... 109 4.1 Models of Optical Imaging........................................................................... 109
    vi Contents Aberrations ......................................................................................................... 114 4.2 4.3 Modeling Photochemical Reactions .......................................................... 122 Thin-Film Optical Effects ............................................................................. 125 4.4 4.5 Post-Exposure Bakes ...................................................................................... 130 4.6 Methods for Addressing the Problems of Reflective Substrates ...... 133 4.7 Development...................................................................................................... 140 Problems........................................................................................................................... 141 References ....................................................................................................................... 141 Chapter 5 Wafer Steppers ............................................................................... 147 Overview ............................................................................................................. 147 5.1 Light Sources..................................................................................................... 150 5.2 Illumination Systems ...................................................................................... 162 5.3 Reduction Lenses ............................................................................................. 166 5.4 Autofocus Systems .......................................................................................... 185 5.5 The Wafer Stage ............................................................................................... 187 5.6 Scanning.............................................................................................................. 193 5.7 Dual-Stage Exposure Tools .......................................................................... 195 5.8 5.9 Lithography Exposure Tools before Steppers ........................................ 196 Problems........................................................................................................................... 201 References ....................................................................................................................... 201 Chapter 6 Overlay............................................................................................ 215 6.1 Alignment Systems.......................................................................................... 217 6.1.1 Classification of alignment systems .......................................... 221 6.1.2 Optical methods for alignment and wafer-to-reticle referencing ......................................................................................... 221 6.1.3 Number of alignment marks ........................................................ 227 6.2 Overlay Models ................................................................................................ 228 6.3 Matching ............................................................................................................. 237 6.4 Process-Dependent Overlay Effects .......................................................... 247 Problems........................................................................................................................... 249 References ....................................................................................................................... 250 Chapter 7 Masks and Reticles......................................................................... 257 7.1 Overview ............................................................................................................. 257 7.2 Mask Blanks ...................................................................................................... 259 7.3 Mechanical Optical-Pattern Generators.................................................... 261 Electron-Beam Lithography and Mask Writers..................................... 262 7.4 Optical Mask Writers...................................................................................... 276 7.5 Resists for Mask Making............................................................................... 277 7.6 7.7 Etching................................................................................................................. 281 Pellicles ............................................................................................................... 281 7.8
    Contents vii 7.9 Mask-Defect Inspection and Repair .......................................................... 289 Problems........................................................................................................................... 293 References ....................................................................................................................... 294 Chapter 8 Confronting the Diffraction Limit ................................................... 307 Off-Axis Illumination ..................................................................................... 307 8.1 Optical Proximity Effects.............................................................................. 316 8.2 The Mask-Error Factor................................................................................... 326 8.3 Phase-Shifting Masks ..................................................................................... 330 8.4 8.5 Putting It All Together.................................................................................... 341 Problems........................................................................................................................... 343 References ....................................................................................................................... 343 Chapter 9 Metrology ........................................................................................ 351 9.1 9.1.2 9.1.3 Linewidth Measurement ................................................................................ 351 9.1.1 Linewidth measurement using scanning electron microscopes ....................................................................................... 351 Scatterometry .................................................................................... 359 Electrical linewidth measurement .............................................. 361 9.2 Measurement of Overlay ............................................................................... 363 Problems........................................................................................................................... 366 References ....................................................................................................................... 367 Chapter 10 Immersion Lithography and the Limits of Optical Lithography .... 371 10.1 Immersion Lithography.................................................................................. 372 10.2 The Diffraction Limit...................................................................................... 377 10.3 Improvements in Optics................................................................................. 380 10.4 Maximum Numerical Aperture ................................................................... 381 10.5 The Shortest Wavelength............................................................................... 384 10.6 Improved Photoresists .................................................................................... 386 10.7 Flatter Wafers .................................................................................................... 387 10.8 How Low Can k1 Go?..................................................................................... 388 10.9 How Far Can Optical Lithography Be Extended? ................................ 389 10.10 Double Patterning ............................................................................................ 395 10.11 Interferometric Lithography ......................................................................... 400 Problems........................................................................................................................... 401 References ....................................................................................................................... 402 Chapter 11 Lithography Costs.......................................................................... 407 11.1 Cost-of-Ownership .......................................................................................... 407 11.1.1 Capital costs ...................................................................................... 408 11.1.2 Consumables ..................................................................................... 416
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