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Cognitive Psychology.pdf
1Cognitive Psychology and the Brain
Introduction
Defining Cognitive Psychology
The role of the brain
References
Links
2Problem Solving from an Evolutionary Perspective
Introduction
Insight
Fixation
Problem Solving - Modern Approaches
Problem Solving as a Search Problem
Means-End Analysis
Analogies
Restructuring by Using Analogies
Schema
How do Experts Solve Problems?
Divergent Thinking
The Evolutionary Perspective
Natural Selection
Adaptation As a Result of Natural Selection
Psychological Adaptation
Adaptations May Be Out-of-Date
Sexual Selection
Altruism
Reciprocal Behaviour
(Iterative) Prisoner's Dilemma
Consciousness
Evolution of Consciousness
Neuropsychology and Consciousness
Blindsight[6]
Commissurotomy (split-brain)[6]
Hemineglect[21]
Anosognosia[6]
Problem Solving and Consciousness
Review
References
Links
3Evolutionary Perspective on Social Cognitions
Introduction
From selection to sociality
Group Selection
Kin Selection
Reciprocal Alturism
Possible selection pressures favoring human sociality
Social Cognition
The human faculty of social cognition
Understanding intentional action
Shared intentionality
References
4Behavioral and Neuroscience Methods
Introduction
Studies on humans with brain damages
Lesion method
Areas where it is used
Problems which can occur
single case studies
Techniques for Assessing Brain Anatomy
CAT
MRI
History and Development of MRI
Common Uses of the MRI Procedure
Risks
Techniques for Assessing Physiological Function
PET
fMRI
Electromagnetic Recording Methods
Single cell
EEG
ERP
MEG
Techniques for Modulating Brain Activity
Transcranical magnetic stimulation (TMS)
History and procedure
Mechanisms
Basic applications
Clinical applications
Future of TMS
Techniques for Analyzing Behaviour
Test batteries
Customized neuropsychological assessment
Overall Intelligence tests
Premorbid functioning
Techniques for Modeling Brain-Behaviour Relationships
References
5Motivation and Emotion
Introduction
Motivation - about drives and motives
What is an emotion?
Functional Theories
James-Lange Theory
Cannon-Bard Theory
Two Factor Theory
The Neural Correlate of Emotion
The Hippocampus
The Thalamus
The Cerebral Cortex
The Amygdala
Anatomy
Functions
Processing social signals of emotion
Emotional conditioning
Emotional memories
References
Books
Journals
Links
6Memory
Introduction
What is Memory
What is memory?
Classification by duration
Classification by information type
Classification by temporal direction
Most important brain structures responsible for memory
Types of Memory
Sensory Memory
Short Term Memory
Short Term Memory
Working Memory
Long Term Memory
Declarative Memory
Implicit Memory
Errors in Memory
Biochemical
Hardware Errors
Sources
7Memory and Language
Introduction
Definition
Language
Memory
Brain regions
Memory
Short term/long term Memory
Working Memory
Sensory Memory
Semantic Memory
Correlation between Language and Memory
Acquisition of language
Speech production
Diseases
References
External resources
Books
Links
8Imagery
Introduction
The Imagery Debate
What is it about?
How is it?
Biological reasoning of debate
Spatial Representation
Abstract
Introduction
What is it?
How is spatial knowledge encoded?
Propositional Representation
Theory
Representation
Complex objects
Proofs for propositional representation
Imagery and Perception
Size and the Visual Field
Current state of imagery debate
Imagery and memory
References
Further Reading
Links
9Comprehension
Introduction
Language as a cognitive ability
Historical review on Psycholinguistics & Neurolinguistics
Todays goals of Psycholinguistics
Characteristic features
Non-Human Language - Animal Communication
Forms of Communication
Characteristic Language Features in Animal Communication
Experiments
Can the characteristic language features be found in non-human communication?
Language Comprehension & Production
Language features – Syntax and Semantics
Physiological Approach
Semantics
Syntax
Behavioristic Approach – Parsing a Sentence
The Syntax-First Approach of Parsing
The Interactionist Approch of Parsing
Situation Model
Using Language
Language, Culture and Cognition
What is the connection between language and cognition?
Is thought dependent on, or even caused by language?
References
10Neuroscience of Comprehension
Introduction
Lateralization of language
Anatomical differences between left and right hemisphere
Functional asymmetry
Handedness
Auditory Language Processing
Neurological Perspective
Psychological Perspective
Visual Language Processing
The phonological route
The direct route
The processing of written language in reading
The processing of written language in spelling
Evidence from Advanced Neuroscience Methods
Left hemisphere dominance
Different roles of posterior and anterior regions
Visual versus Auditory Language Processing
Beyond words
Findings from other language systems
Sign language
Sign language grammar
Neuropsychological research of sign language
References & Further Reading
11Situation Models and Inferencing
Introduction
Why do we need situation models?
Integration of information across sentences
Explanation of similarities in comprehension performances across modalities
Domain expertise on comprehension
Multiple source learning
Multidimensionality of Situation Models
Space
Time
Causation
Intentionality
Protagonists and Objects
Processing Frameworks
Introduction
An interactive Model of Comprehension
Early Computational Model
Construction-Integration Model
Event-Indexing Model
The Immersed Experiencer Framework
Levels of Representation in Language and Text Comprehension
Propositional Representation
Three levels of representation
Two levels of representation
KIWi-Model
Inferencing
Anaphoric Inference
Instrumental Inference
Causual Inference
Predictice / Forward Inference
Integrating Inferences into Situation Models
Important Topics of current research
Linguistic Cues versus World Knowledge
Multidimensionality
References
Links
12Knowledge
Knowledge Representation and Hemispheric Distribution/Specialisation
Introduction
Historical and Philosophical Aspects
Theories on Knowledge Representation in the Brain
Concepts and Categories
Concepts
Categories in our Life
Definitional Approach
Prototype Approach
Exemplar Approach
Prototype vs. Exemplar Approach
Hierarchical Organization of Categories
Affecting Factors on Categorization
Representation of Categories in the Brain
Semantic Networks
Collins and Quillian's Model
Cognitive Economy
Correlation between Distance of Concepts and Information Retrieval
Spreading Activation
Criticism
Collins and Loftus Model - A Developed C&Q-Model
Connectionist Approach
Representation of Concepts in Networks
Basic Principles of Connectionism
Operation of Connectionist Networks
Evaluating Connectionism
Mental Representation
Propositional Approach
Propositions
Mental Propositions
Imagery Approach
Knowledge Representation (KR) in Computational Models of Cognition
Knowledge Engineering
Ontology
Frame Problem
Knowledge Representation Formalisms
Different Types of Formal Languages
Expressive Power of Formalisms vs. Deductive Complexity
Application of KR – Databases
Intertranslation between KR Formalisms
Gap between Human and Artificial KR
KR in AI
Hemispheric Distribution
Differences in Anatomy and Chemistry
Historic Approaches
Experiments with Split-Brain-Patients
Experiments with Patients with other Brain-Lesions
Drawbacks
Experiments with Neurologically Intact Individuals
Results
Do the Hemispheres Differ in What or How They Process?
Communication Between the Hemispheres via the Corpus Callosum
Individual Factors may Influence Lateralization
Age
Handedness
Gender
Summary
References
Knowledge Representation
Hemispheric Specialisation/Distribution
Links
Knowledge Representation
Hemispheric Specialisation
13Decision Making and Reasoning
Introduction
Deductive Reasoning
Thinking Categorically
The Normative Approach
The Descriptive Approach
Mental Models of Deductive Reasoning
Effects of Culture on Deductive Reasoning
Thinking Conditionally
Forms of conditionla syllogisms
Why people make errors in conditional reasoning: The Wason Four- Card- problem
Stating the Four – Card task in real – world terms: the role of ‘Regulations’
Pragmatic Reasoning Schemas in the Wason Task: The role of ‘Permission’
An evolutionary approach to the Four – Card – problem: The role of ‘Cheating’
Inductive Reasoning
Induction vs deduction
How reliable are conclusions reached through induction?
Processes and constraints of inductive reasoning
So, why inductive reasoning at all?
Decision Making: Choosing Among Alternatives
About the Process
The Utility Approach
Misleading Effects
Situation Models
Focusing Illusion
Framing Effect
Justification in Decision Making
Executive Functions
Deficits in initiation, cessation and control of action
Impairments in abstract and conceptual thinking
Deficits in cognitive estimation
Lack of Cognitive Flexibility and Deficits in the Response to Novelty
Deficits in goal directed behavior
What characterizes goal directed behavior?
Executive dysfunction and goal directed behavior
Theories of Frontal Lobe Function in Executive Control
Role of Working Memory
Role of Controlled Versus Automatic Processes
Use of Scripts
Role of a goal list
References
Links
Reasoning
Decision making
Executive functions
14Present and Future of Research
Introduction
Until now
Introducing new methods
Possible development
Methods
Experimental Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Neuropsychology
Cognitive Science
Cognitive Neuroscience
Converging operations
Theory
Unifying Theories
Parallel Processing
Levels of Analysis
Conclusion
References
Links
15History & Document Notes
Wikibook History
PDF Information & History
16Authors & Image Credits
Authors
Image Credits
17GNU Free Documentation License
0. PREAMBLE
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3. COPYING IN QUANTITY
4. MODIFICATIONS
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8. TRANSLATION
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10. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE
External links
CCOGNITIVE
OGNITIVE P PSYCHOLOGY
SYCHOLOGY ANDAND
CCOGNITIVE
OGNITIVE N NEUROSCIENCE
EUROSCIENCE
by Wikibooks contributors
Developed on Wikibooks,
the open-content textbooks collection
© Copyright 2004–2006, Wikibooks contributors.
Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free
Documentation License, Version 1.2 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no
Invariant Sections, no Front-Cover Texts, and no Back-Cover Texts. A copy of the license is included in the
section entitled "GNU Free Documentation License".
Image licenses are listed in the section entitled "Image Credits."
Main authors: Aschoeke (C) Tbittlin (C) LanguageGame (C) Itiaden (C) Pbenner (C) · Mheimann (C)
Jkeyser (C) Ddeunert (C) Marplogm (C) · Pehrenbr (C) Ifranzme (C) FlyingGerman (C) Sspoede (C) ·
Asarwary (C) Lbartels (C) Smieskes (C) Apape (C) · Ekrueger (C)
The current version of this Wikibook may be found at:
http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Cognitive_Psychology_and_Cognitive_Neuroscience
Contents
CHAPTERS..............................................................................................................................4
01 Cognitive Psychology and the Brain................................................................................................4
02 Problem Solving from an Evolutionary Perspective........................................................................ 8
03 Evolutionary Perspective on Social Cognitions............................................................................. 25
04 Behavioral and Neuroscience Methods..........................................................................................33
05 Motivation and Emotion.................................................................................................................47
06 Memory.......................................................................................................................................... 57
07 Memory and Language...................................................................................................................66
08 Imagery...........................................................................................................................................73
09 Comprehension...............................................................................................................................81
10 Neuroscience of Comprehension....................................................................................................94
11 Situation Models and Inferencing................................................................................................ 109
12 Knowledge....................................................................................................................................125
13 Decision Making and Reasoning..................................................................................................146
14 Present and Future of Research....................................................................................................168
ABOUT THE BOOK............................................................................................................... 177
History & Document Notes...............................................................................................................177
Authors & Image Credits.................................................................................................................. 178
GNU Free Documentation License................................................................................................... 179
1 COGNITIVE PSYCHOLOGY AND THE BRAIN
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Chapter 1
Introduction
I
magine a young man, Knut, sitting at his desk, with his tired eyes staring at a monitor, surfing
around, trying to find some worthy articles for his psychology homework. A cigarette rests between
the middle and index fingers of his left hand. Without looking, he stretches out his free hand and grabs
a cup of coffee located on the right of his keyboard. While sipping some of the cheap discounter blend,
he suddenly asks himself: "What is happening here?"
Around the beginning of the 20th century, psychologists would have said, "Take a look into
yourself, Knut, analyse what you're thinking and doing," as analytical introspection was the method of
that time.
A few years later, J.B. Watson published his book Psychology from the Standpoint of a
Behaviorist, from which began the era of behaviourism. Behaviourists claimed that it was impossible to
study the inner life of people scientifically. Their approach to psychology, which they assumed to be
more scientific, focussed only on the study and experimental analysis of behaviour. The right answer to
Knut's question would have been: "You are sitting in front of your computer, reading and drinking
coffee, because of your environment and how it influences you." Behaviorism was the primary means
for American psychology for about the next 50 years. One of the primary critiques and downfalls of
behaviorism was Noam Chomsky's 1959 critique of B.F. Skinner's "Verbal behaviour". Skinner, an
influential behaviourist, attempted to explain language on the basis of behaviour alone. Chomsky
showed that this was impossible, and by doing so, influenced enough psychologists to end the
dominance of behaviorism in American psychology.
As more researchers were once again concerned with processes inside the head, cognitive
psychology arose on the landscape of science. Their central claim was that cognition was information
processing of the brain. Cognitive psychology did not dispose the methods of behaviourism, but rather
widened their horizon by adding levels between input and output.
Modern technology and new methods enabled researchers to combine examinations of public
actions (latencies in reaction time, number of recalls) with physiological measurements (EEG and
event-related potentials, fMRI). Such methods, in addition to others, are used by cognitive science to
collect evidence for certain features of mental activity. From this, references and correlations between
action and cognition could be made.
These correlations were inspiration and thenceforwards the main challenge for cognitive
psychologists. To answer Knut's question the cognitive psychologist would probably first examining
Knut’s brain in that specific situation. So let's try this!
Knut has a problem, he really needs to do his homework. To solve this problem, he has to perform
loads of cognition. The light is gleaming into his eyes, transducing it from his retina into nerve signals
by sensory cells. The information is passed on through the optic nerve, crosses the brain at the lateral
geniculate nucleus to arrive at the central visual cortex. On its journey, the signals get computed over
complex nets of neurons; the contrast of the picture gets enhanced; irrelevant information gets filtered
4 | Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience
Cognitive Psychology and the Brain
out; patterns are recognized; stains and lines on the screen become words; words get meaning, the
meaning is put into context, analyzed on its relevance for Knut's problem, maybe stored in some part of
memory. At the same time an appetite for coffee is creeping from Knut's hypothalamus, a region in the
brain responsible for controlling the needs of an organism. The appetite, encoded in patterns of neural
information, makes its way to the motor cortex where it is passed on to the muscles into Knut's arm.
A lot more could be said about this, and Knut's question remains unanswered, but this should be
enough to point out the complexity of cognition and the brain's importance. In this chapter, we are
going to dig deeper into the question of what cognitive psychology is and how it became this way, and
then draw connections to the brain and explain some of its most important parts.
Defining Cognitive Psychology
Cognitive Psychology is a psychological science which is interested in various mind and brain
related subfields such as cognition, the mental processes that underlie behavior, reasoning and decision
making.
In the early stages of Cognitive Psychology, the high-tech measuring instruments used today were
unavailable. The idea of scientifically scrutinizing what was going on in a human mind was first
established during the late 19th century.
Psychology Laboratories were based on measuring observable features such as reaction time.
Nonetheless, there was a technique developed called analytic introspection. The latter is a method that
focusses on the subject’s inner processes. Here, the subject has to give precise reports about his or her
mental activity.
During the first half of the 20th century and naturally parallel to behaviorism, the behavioristic
approach became the main issue in psychology. The main emphasis was the examination of outer
expression of inner processes, rather than the mind itself.
Even though behaviorism had established itself as the mainstream, curiosity about the mind was
not diminished. In the 1950s, this inquisitiveness was released in a new science named Cognitive
Science. Cognitive Psychology became one of its subfields. The interdisciplinary approach of
Cognitive Science enabled the use of modern technology and new methods to combine examinations of
public actions (latencies in reaction time, number of recalls) with physiological measurements (EEG
and event-related potentials, fMRI).
Hereby, references and correlations between action and cognition could be made. Cognitive
Psychology is using these methods and additional ones such as Single and Double Dissociation and
brain lesioning to collect evidence for certain features of mental activity. Because of those correlations
that were found, the examination of the human brain and its functions has become one of the main
challenges to Cognitive Psychology.
Wikibooks | 5
The role of the brain
Chapter 1
Examination of brain damage has a long tradition.
The Ancient Romans observed that gladiators with head
injuries often lost their mental skills, whereas injuries to
other parts of the body did not have such an effect. It
was inferred that there was a possible link between the
mind and brain. Today, the assumption that the mind is
somehow implemented in the brain is taken for granted,
and even the common-sense understanding presupposes
a relation between mental and neuronal processes.
Subsequently, research on the brain became more and
more important, and the psychological methods being
used shifted to systematic scientific examination of the
brain. The crucial question then became: How is this
relation realized, and what properties of the brain are
capable of causing mental and cognitive events?
Figure 1.1 - The resting potential is initially around -70
mV relative to the outside of the cell. Once the
threshold (-55 mV) is passed, the cell depolarizes and
the polarity reverses up to +40 mV. Subsequently the
cell hyperpolarizes and the voltage becomes more
negative than the resting potential for a short period.
As it is not possible, in this introductory passage, to
cover the entire configuration of the brain in an appropriate manner, we will just give a brief summary
of the concepts behind neural signal transduction, and smoothly switch over to the anatomy of the
brain. This in turn will then serve as background information in the attempt to link cognitive functions
to brain structure.
In principle, there are two classes of cells in the human brain: neurons and glia. Both are
approximately equal in distribution, though neurons seem to play the main role in information
processing. The actual signal transduction takes place in different ways. On the one hand, there is mean
electrical conduction, and on the other hand, there are complicated biochemical cascades which
transmit the data. Both variants can be subsumed to the concept of action potentials (Figure 1.1), which
generally carry out the signal transduction from one nerve cell to another.
For better conduction, the axons of the neurons are insulated by a so-called myelin sheath. The
myelin in the human brain is produced by a certain class of glial cell, the oligodendrocytes. This is
important because the decomposition of the myelin sheath is involved in diseases, such as as multiple
sklerosis.
Once the information perceived by the sensory organs is transformed into a sequence of action
potentials the data is, in a way, neutral, since it has no specific qualitive properties which indicate from
which sense the signal was original initiated. But how is the information encoded? In other words, how
can the variety of our conscious experience be caused by simple inhibition and excitation of nerve cells
embedded in an admittedly complex system? Because of the lack of better metaphors, the answer is
often given by comparing the brain to a modern digital computer. Parsing the world into objects,
making inferences, having associative memory and the like can be analyzed by developing
computational models. The underlying paradigm is that the information is represented by the rate of
action potential spikes. How this is exactly realized is the aim of research of biophysics, a subdiscipline
of neurobiology.
In cognitive psychology, however, the methods used differ. This is because the main interest is not
devoted to the organization of single neuron circuits, but rather to the larger, functional units in the
6 | Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience
Cognitive Psychology and the Brain
network.
References
• M. S. Gazzaniga, R. B. Ivry, and G. R. Mangun, Cognitive Neuroscience, Norton &
Company, 1998, ISBN 0393972194
• E. Br. Goldstein, Cognitive Psychology, Wadsworth, 2004, ISBN 0534577261
• M. W Eysenck, M. T. Keane, Cognitive Psychology, Psychology Press, 2005, ISBN
1841693596
• M. T. Banich, The Neural Bases of Mental Function, Houghton Mifflin, 1997, ISBN 0-395-
66699-6
• E. R. Kandel, J. H. Schwartz, T. M. Jessell, Principles of neural science, 2000, ISBN 0-07-
112000-9
Links
• PDF file of the "ethics code" of the American Psychological Association
• Cognitive Psychology miniscript by Fabian M. Suchanek
• Famous papers in the history of cognition
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Wikibooks | 7
2 PROBLEM SOLVING FROM AN EVOLUTIONARY
PERSPECTIVE
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Chapter 2
Introduction
G
estalt psychologists approach towards problem solving was a perceptual one. That is, for them,
the questions about problem solving were:
• how is a problem represented in a persons mind, and
• how does solving this problem involve a reorganisation or restructuring of this
representation?
Restructuring is basically the process of arriving at a new understanding of a problem situation -
changing from one representation of a problem to a (very) different one. The following story illustrates
this:
Two boys of different age are playing badminton. The older one is a more skilled player, and
therefore it is predictable for the outcome of usual matches who will be the winner. After some time
and several defeats the younger boy finally loses interest in playing, and the older boy faces a problem.
The usual suggestions, according to M. Wertheimer (1945/82), at this point of the story range from
'offering candy' and 'playing another game' to ' not playing to full ability' and 'shaming the younger boy
into playing'. And this is what the older boy comes up with:
He proposes that they should try to keep the bird in play as long as possible - and thus changing
from a game of competition to one of cooperation. They'd start with easy shots and make them harder
as their success increases, counting the number of consecutive hits. The proposal is happily accepted
and the game is on again.
Insight
There are two very different ways of approaching a goal-oriented situation. In one an organism
readily reproduces the response to the given problem from past experience. This is called reproductive
thinking.
The second way requires something new and different to achieve the goal, prior learning is of little
help here. Such productive thinking is (sometimes) argued to involve insight. Gestalt psychologists
even state that insight problems are a separate category of problems in their own right.
Tasks that might involve insight usually have certain features - they require something new and
nonobvious to be done and in most cases they are difficult enough to prevent that the initial solution
attempt is successful. When solving this kind of problems one experiences a so called "AHA-
experience" - the solution pops up all of the sudden. At one time they do not have the answer to a
problem and in the next second it's solved.
8 | Cognitive Psychology and Neuroscience
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