Global Positioning System：Theory and Application(Volume I).PDF

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Table of Contents

Preface

Part I. GPS Fundamentals

Chapter 1. Introduction and Heritage of NAVSTAR, the Global Positioning System

Background and History

Predecessors

Joint Program Office Formed, 1973

Introductory GPS System Description and Technical Design

Principals of System Operation

GPS Ranging Signal

Satellite Orbital Configuration

Satellite Design

Satellite Autonomy: Atomic Clocks

Ionospheric Errors and Corrections

Expected Navigation Performance

High Accuracy/Carrier Tracking

History of Satellites

Navigation Technology Satellites

Navigation Development Satellites-Block I

Operational Satellites-Block II and IIA

Replacement Operational Satellites-Block IIR

Launches

Launch Vehicles

Initial Testing

Test Results

Conclusions

Applications

Military

Dual Use: The Civil Problem

Pioneers of the GPS

Defense Development, Research, and Engineering-Malcolm Currie and David Packard

Commander of SAMSO, General Ken Schultz

Contractors

Joint Program Office Development Team

Predecessors

Future

References

Chapter 2. Overview of GPS Operation and Design

Introduction to GPS

Performance Objectives and Quantitative Requirements on the GPS Signal

Satellite Navigation Concepts, Position Accuracy, and Requirement Signal Time Estimate Accuracy

GPS Space Segment

GPS Orbit Configuration and Multiple Access

GPS Satellite Payload

Augmentation of GPS

GPS Control Segment

Monitor Stations and Ground Antennas

Operational Control Center

GPS User Segment

GPS User Receiver Architecture

Use of GPS

GPS Signal Perturbations – Atmospheric/Ionospheric/Tropospheric Multipath Effects

Ionospheric Effects

Tropospheric Effects

Multipath Effects

Other Perturbing Effects

References

Chapter 3. GPS Signal Structure and Theoretical Performance

Introduction

Summary of Desired GPS Navigation Signal Properties

Fundamentals of Spread Spectrum Signaling

GPS Signal Structure

Multiplexing Two GPS Spread Spectrum Signals on a Single Carrier and Multiple Access of Multiple Satellite Signals

GPS Radio Frequency Selection and Signal Characteristics

Detailed Signal Structure

GPS Radio Frequency Receive GPS Power Levels and Signal-to-Noise Ratios

GPS Radio Frequency Signal Levels and Power Spectra

Satellite Antenna Pattern

Signal Specifications

User-Receiver Signal-lo-Noise Levels

Recommendations for Future Enhancements to the GPS System

Detailed Signal Characteristics and Bounds on Pseudorange Tracking Accuracy

Cross-Correlation Properties-Worst Case

Coarse/Acquisition-Code Properties

Bounds on GPS Signal Tracking Performance in Presence of White Thermal Noise

Appendix: Fundamental Properties of Maximal Length Shift Registers and Gold Codes

References

Chapter 4. GPS Navigation Data

Introduction

Overall Message Content of the Navigation Data

Navigation Data Subframe. Frame. and Superframe

Detailed Description of the Navigation Data Subframe

Subframe 1-GPS Clock Correction and Space Vehicle Accuracy

GPS Ephemeris Parameters-Subframes 2 and 3

Subframes 4 and 5-Almanac, Space Vehicle Health, and Ionosphere Models

Time, Satellite Clocks, and Clock Errors

Mean Solar, Universal Mean Sidereal, and GPS Time

Clock Accuracy and Clock Measurement Statistics

Satellite Orbit and Position

Coordinate Systems and Classical Orbital Elements

Classical Keplerian Orbits

Perturbation of Satellite Orbit

Ionospheric Correction Using Measured Data

Dual-Frequency Ionospheric Correction

Appendix

References

Chapter 5. Satellite Constellation and Geometric Dilution of Precision

Introduction

GPS Orbit Configuration, GPS-24

GPS Orbit-Semi-Major Axis

GPS Orbit-Satellite Phasing

GPS Satellite Visibility and Doppler Shift

Bound on Level of Coverage for 24 Satellites

GPS Satellite Visibility Angle and Droopier Shift

GPS-24 Satellite Visibility

Augmentation of the GPS-24 Constellation

Constellation of 30 GPS Satellites

Coverage Swath for an Equatorial Plane of Satellites

Satellite Ground Traces

Geometric Dilution of Precision Performance Bounds and GPS-24 Performance

Bounds on Geometric Dilution of Precision-Two Dimensions

Bounds on Geometric Dilution of Precision-Three Dimensions

Position Dilution of Precision with an Accurate Clock

Position Dilution of Precision for the GPS-24 Constellation

References

Bibliography

Chapter 6. GPS Satellite and Payload

Spacecraft and Navigation Payload Heritage

Concept

Relation to Earlier Non-GPS Satellites

Overview of Payload Evolution

On-Orbit Performance History

Navigation Payload Requirements

GPS System

GPS Performance

GPS Signal Structure

Payload Requirements

Block IIR Space Vehicle Configuration

Navigation Payload Architecture

Block IIR Payload Design

Payload Subsystems

Mission Data Unit

L-Band Subsystem

Characteristics of the GPS L-Band Satellite Antenna

Coverage Area

Antenna Pattern

Antenna Evolution

Crosslinks

Primary and Secondary Functions

Autonomous Navigation

Future Performance Improvements

Additional Capabilities

References

Chapter 7. Fundamentals of Signal Tracking Theory

Introduction

GPS User Equipment

GPS User Equipment-System Architecture

Alternate Forms of Generalized Position Estimators

Maximum Likelihood Estimates of Delay and Position

Overall Perspective on GPS Receiver Noise Performance

Interaction of Signal Tracking and Navigation Data Demodulation

Delay Lock Loop Receivers for GPS Signal Tracking

Coherent Delay Lock Tracking of Bandlimited Pseudonoise Sequences

Noncoherent Delay Lock Loop Tracking of Pseudonoise Signals

Quasicoherent Delay Lock Loop

Coherent Code/Carrier Delay Lock Loop

Carrier-Aided Pseudorange Tracking

Vector Delay Lock Loop Processing of GPS Signals

Independent Delay Lock Loop and Kalman Filter

Vector Delay Lock Loop (VDLL)

Quasioptimal Noncoherent Vector Delay Lock Loop

Channel Capacity and the Vector Delay Lock Loop

Appendix A: Maximum Likelihood Estimate of Delay and Position

Appendix B: Least-Squares Estimation and Quasioptimal Vector Delay Lock Loops

Appendix C: Noncoherent Delay Lock Loop Noise Performance with Arbitrary Early-Late Reference Spacing

Appendix D: Probability of Losing Lock for the Noncoherent DLL

Appendix E: Colored Measurement Noise in the Vector Delay Lock Loop

References

Chapter 8. GPS Receivers

Generic Receiver Description

Generic Receiver System Level Functions

Design Requirements Summary

Technology Evolution

Historical Evolution of Design Implementation

Current Day Design Implementation

System Design Details

Signal and Noise Representation

Front-End Hardware

Digital Signal Processing

Receiver Software Signal Processing

A Signal-Processing Model and Noise Bandwidth Concepts

Signal Acquisition

Automatic Gain Control

Generic Tracking Loops

Delay Lock Loops

Carrier Tracking

Lock Detectors

Bit Synchronization

Delta Demodulation, Frame Synchronization, and Parity Decoding

Appendix A: Determination of Signal-to-Noise Density

Appendix B: Acquisition Threshold and Performance Determination

References

Chapter 9. GPS Navigation Algorithms

Introduction

Measurement Models

Pseudorange

Doppler

Accumulated Delta Range

Navigation Delta Inputs

Single-Point Solution

Solution Accuracy and Dilution of Precision

Point Solution Example

Users Process Models

Clock Model

Stationary User or Vehicle

Low Dynamics

High Dynamics

Kalman Filter and Alternatives

Discrete Extended Kalman Filter Formulation

Steady-State Filter Performance

Alternate Forms of the Kalman Filter

Dual-Rate Filter

Correlated Measurement Noise

GPS Filtering Examples

Buoy Example

Low Dynamics

Unmodeled Dynamics

Correlated Measurement Errors

Summary

References

Chapter 10. GPS Operational Control Segment

Monitor Stations

Master Control Station

Ground Antenna

Navigation Data Processing

System State Estimation

Navigation Message Generation

Time Coordination

Navigation Product Validation

References ..............:

Part II. GPS Performance and Error Effects

Chapter 11. GPS Error Analysis

Introduction

Fundamental Error Equation

Overview of Development

Derivation of the Fundamental Error Equation

Geometric Dilution of Precision

Derivation of the Geometric Dilution of Precision Equation

Power of the GDOP Concept

Example Calculations

Impact of Elevation Angle on GDOP

Ranging Errors

Six Classes of Errors

Ephemeris Errors

Satellite Clock Errors

Ionosphere Errors

Troposhere Errors

Multipath Errors

Receiver Errors

Standard Error Tables

Error Table Without S/A: Normal Operation for C/A Code

Error Table with S/A

Error Table for Precise Positioning Service (PPS Dual-Frequency P/Y Code)

Summary

References

Chapter 12. Ionospheric Effects on GPS

Introduction

Characteristics of the Ionosphere

Refractive index of the ionosphere

Major Effects on Global Positioning Systems Caused by the Ionosphere

Ionospheric Group Delay-Absolute Range Error

Ionospheric Carrier Phase Advance

Higher-Order Ionospheric Effects

Obtaining Absolute Total Electron Content from Dual-Frequency GPS Measurements

Ionospheric Doppler Shift/Range-Rate Errors

Faraday Rotation

Angular Refraction

Distortion of Pulse Waveforms

Amplitude Scintillation

Ionospheric Phase Scintillation Effects

Total Electron Content

Dependence of Total Electron Content on Solar Flux

Ionospheric Models

Single-Frequency GPS Ionospheric Corrections

Magnetic Storms Effects on Global Positioning Systems

Differential GPS Positioning

Appendix: Ionospheric Correction Algorithm for the Single-Frequency GPS Users

References

Chapter 13. lroposheric Effects on GPS

Troposheric Effects

Introduction

Atmospheric Attenuation

Rainfall Attenuation

Troposheric Scintillation

Tropospheric Delay

Path Length and Delay

Tropospheric Refraction Versus Pressure and Temperature

Empirical Models of the Troposhere

Saastamoinen Total Delay Model

Hopfield Two Quartic Model

Black and Eisner (B&E) Model

Water Vapor Zenith Delay Model-Berman

Davis, Chao, and Marini Mapping Functions

Altshuler and Kalaghan Delay Model

Ray Tracing and Simplified Models

Lanyi Mapping Function and GPS Control Segment Estimate

Model Comparisons

Tropospheric Delay Errors and GPS Positioning

References

Chapter 14. Multipath Effects

Introduction

Signal and Multipath Error Models

Pseudorandom Noise Modulated Signal Description

Coherent Pseudorandom Noise Receiver

Noncoherent Pseudorandom Noise Receiver

Simulation Results

Aggravation and Mitigation

Antenna Considerations

Receiver Design

Multipath Data Collection

Acknowledgments

References

Chapter 15. Foliage Attenuation for Land Mobile Users

Introduction

Attenuation of an Individual Tree or Forest of Trees-Stationary User

Foliage Attenuation-Mobile User

Probability Distribution Models for Foliage Attenuation-Mobile User

Measured Models-Satellite Attenuation Data

Measured Fading for Tree-Lined Roads-Mobile Users

References

Chapter 16. Ephemeris and Clock Navigation Message Accuracy

Control Segment Generation of Predicted Ephemerides and Clock Corrections

Accuracy of the Navigation Message

Global Network GPS Analysis at the Jet Propulsion Laboratory

Accuracy of the Precise Solution

Comparison of Precise Orbits with Broadcast Ephemerides

Comparison of the Precise Clocks with Broadcast Clocks

Summary and Discussion

Appendix: User Equivalent Range Error

References

Chapter 17. Selective Availability

Goals and History

Implementation

Characterization of Selective Availability

Second-Order Gauss-Markov Model

Autoregressive Model

Analytic Model

Recursive Autoregressive Model (Lattice Filter)

Selective Availability Model Summary

References

Chapter 18. Introduction to Relativistic Effects on the Global Positioning System

Introduction

Objectives

Statement of the GPS Problem

Introduction to the Elementary Principles of Relativity

Euclidean Geometry and Newtonian Physics

Space-Time Coordinates and the Lorentz Transformation

Relativistic Effects of Rotation in the Absence of a Gravitational Field

Principle of .Equivalence

Relativistic Effects in GPS

Relativistic Effects on Earth-Based Clocks

Relativistics Effects for Users of the GPS

Secondary Relativistic Effects

References

Chapter 19. Joint Program Office Test Results

Introduction

U.S. Army Yuma Proving Ground (YPG)

Reasons for Selection of Yuma Proving Ground

Lasers

Range Space

Joint Program Office Operating Location

Satellite Constellation for Test Support

Control Segment Responsiveness to Testing Needs

Trajectory Determination YPG

Real-Time Estimate

Best Estimate of Trajectory

Validation of Truth Trajectory Accuracy

Ground Truth

Phase I Test (1972-1979)

Ground Transmitters

Navy Testing for Phase 1

Tests Between Phase I and Phase II (1979-1982)

Weapons Delivery

Differential Tests

Phase II: Full-Scale Engineering Development Tests (1982-1985)

Summary

Bibliography

Chapter 20. Interference Effects and Mitigation Techniques

Introduction

Possible Sources of Interference

Frequency Allocation in Adjacent and Subharmonic Bands

Receiver Design for Tolerance to Interference

Receiver Systems

Quantizer Effects in the Presence of Interference

Effects of Interference on the GPS CIA Receiver

Effects of the CIA-Code Line Components on Narrow-Band Interference Performance

Narrow-Band Interference Effects-Spectra of Correlator Output

Interference Effects-Effects on Receiver-Tracking Loops

Detection of Interference, Adaptive Delay Lock Loop, Adaptive Frequency Notch Filtering, and Adaptive Null Steering Antennas

Adaptation of the Delay Lock Loop and Vector Delay Lock Loop

Rejection of Narrow-Band Interference by Adaptive Frequency Nulling Filters

Adaptive Antennas for Point Source Interference

Augmentation of the GPS Signals and Constellation

Appendix: Mean and Variance of the Correlator Output for an M-Bit Quantizer

References

Author Index

Subject Index

Global Positioning System: Theory and Applications Volume I

Global Positioning System: Theory and Applications Volume I Edited by Bradford W. Parkinson Stanford University, Stanford, California James J. Spilker Jr. Stanford Telecom, Sunnyvale, California Associated Editors: Penina Axelrad University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado Per Enge Stanford University, Stanford, California Volume 163 PROGRESS IN ASTRONAUTICS AND AERONAUTICS Paul Zarchan, Editor-in-Chief Charles Stark Draper Laboratory, Inc. Cambridge, Massachusetts Published by the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. 370 L'Enfant Promenade, SW, Washington, DC 20024-2518

Third Printing Copyright © 1996 hy the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc. Printed in the United States of America. All righL" reserved. Reproduction or translation of any part of this work beyond that per mitted by Se(.1ions 107 and 108 of the U.S. Copyright Law without the permis.'iion of the copyright owner is unlawful. The code following this statement indicates the copyright owner's consent that copies of arti cles in this volume may be made for personal or internal LLc;e, on condition that the copier pay the per-copy fee ($2'()0) plus the per-page fee (S0.50) through the copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive. Danvers, Ma';sachusctts 01923. This consent does not extend to other kinds of copying, for which permis sion requests should he addressed to the publisher. Users should employ the following code when reporting copying from this volume to the Copyright Clearance Center: 1-56347-106-X/96 $2.00 + .50 Data and information appearing in this book arc for informational purposes only. AIAA is not responsible for any injury or damage resulting from usc or reliance, nor does AIAA warrant that LL..e or reliance will be free from privately owned righL". ISBN 1-56347-106-X

Progress in Astronautics and Aeronautics Editor-in-Chief Paul Zarchan Charles Stark Draper Laboratory. Inc. Editorial Board John J. Bertin U.S. Air Force Academy Leroy S. Fletcher Texas A&M University Richard G. Bradley Lockheed Martin Fort Worth Company Allen E. Fuhs Carmel. Cal({ornia William Brandon MITRE Corporation Ira D. Jacobsen Embry-Riddle Aeronautical University Clarence B. Cohen Redondo Beach. California John L. Junkins Texas A&M University Luigi De Luca Politechnico di Milano. Italy Pradip M. Sagdeo University (~{ Michigan Martin Summerfield Lawrenceville. New Jersey

Dedication To Anna Marie, Elaine, Virginia, and Tim

Table of Contents Preface ............................................................................................................. xxxi Part I. GPS Fundamentals Introduction and Heritage of NAVSTAR, the Global Chapter 1. Positioning System ..................................................................................... 3 Bradford W. Parkinson, Stanford University, Stanford, California Background and History ............................................................................................... Predecessors . ...... ... ..................... ........ ...... ................................................................. Joint Program Office Fonned, 1973 ............... ......... ........................................... ...... 3 4 6 Introductory GPS System Description and Technical Design ..................................... 10 Principals of System Operation . ................. ........... ......... ..................... ...... ............... 10 GPS Ranging Signal....................... .............. ..... ............. ................ ......... ................. 11 Satellite Orbital Configuration .................................................................................. 13 Satellite Design ......................................................................................................... 14 Satellite Autonomy: Atomic Clocks .............................. ........................................... 14 Ionospheric Errors and Corrections ......... ................ ............. .............. ........ ...... ........ 16 Expected Navigation Performance ........................................................................... 16 High Accuracy/Carrier Tracking .............................................................................. 18 History of Satellites .. ....................... ............... ........... ......... ...... .............. ............ .......... 19 Navigation Technology Satellites ....... ............ .................. ........................................ 19 Navigation Development Satellites-Block I .......................................................... 19 Operational Satellites-Block II and IIA .... .................... ..................... ......... ..... ...... 19 Replacement Operational Satellites-Block IIR ...................................................... 20 Launches ........................................................................................................................ 20 Launch Vehicles ..... ....... ................ .............. ......... ............ ......................................... 20 Initial Testing ................................................................ ................................................ 22 Test Results ......................................................... ...................................................... 22 Conclusions ........ .................................................................................... ................... 24 Applications .................................................... .......... ....... ................ .............................. 24 Military ............... ........................ ..... .... .......... ....... .............. .......................... ............. 24 Dual Use: The Civil Problem ................................................................................... 24 Pioneers of the GPS .. ............ .......................... ............ ......... ............................ ............. 26 Defense Development, Research, and Engineering-Malcolm Currie and David Packard . ................................ ................. ............. ............. ..................... ...... 26 Commander of SAMSO, General Ken Schultz ........................................ ............... 26 Contractors ........................................................................................... ..................... 26 Joint Program Office Development Team ..... .................... .................... ...... ...... ....... 27 Predecessors .................... ................... ........... ............... .... ................ ...... .............. ..... 27

Future ............................................................................................................................. 28 References ................................. .................................................................................... 28 Chapter 2. Overview of GPS Operation and Design ............................. 29 J. J. Spilker Jr., Stanford Telecom. Sunnyvale. California and Bradford W. Parkinson, Stanford University. Stanford. California Introduction to GPS ....... ....... ....................... ...... .................... ..... .................................. 29 PeIforrnance Objectives and Quantitative Requirements on the GPS Signal............. 29 Satellite Navigation Concepts, Position Accuracy, and Requirement Signal Time Estimate Accuracy... ..... ....... ........... ..................... ........... ..... ...... .................. 31 GPS Space Segment ... ........... .......................... ...................... ...................... .................. 36 GPS Orbit Configuration and Multiple Access .. ............. ........ ..... ......... .................. 36 GPS Satellite Payload ............................................................................................... 38 Augmentation of GPS ......... ................ ......... .......... ......................... ........... .... ..... ...... 40 GPS Control Segment .... ........... ....... ................. ......... ....... .... ...... ..... ..................... ........ 40 Monitor Stations and Ground Antennas ........................... ................ ...... ........... ....... 41 Operational Control Center ... ........... ....... .......................... ....................... .......... ....... 42 GPS User Segment ........................................................................................................ 43 GPS User Receiver Architecture .............................................................................. 43 Use of GPS ................................................................... ............... ............................. 45 GPS Signal Perturbations-AtmosphericlIonosphericrrropospheric Multipath Effects 49 Ionospheric Effects ..... ....... .................... .............. ..... ..... ........... ........... ............ .......... 49 Tropospheric Effects .. ........... ........... ......... ............. ....... ..................................... ....... 52 Multipath Effects ....................................................................................................... 52 Other Perturbing Effects ....... ...... ............ ........................................................... ....... 54 References ..................................................................................................................... 54 Chapter 3. GPS Signal Structure and Theoretical Performance ......•.. 57 J. J .. Spilker Jr., Stanford Telecom. Sunnyvale. California Introduction ......... ............. ...... .......... ............. ......... .... ....... ............... ...... .............. ......... 57 Summary of Desired GPS Navigation Signal Properties ........................................ 57 Fundamentals of Spread Spectrum Signaling .......................................................... 59 GPS Signal Structure ..................................................... ............................................... 67 Multiplexing Two GPS Spread Spectrum Signals on a Single Carrier and Multiple Access of Multiple Satellite Signals ..................................................... 68 GPS Radio Frequency Selection and Signal Characteristics ...... ...................... ....... 69 Detailed Signal Structure ................ ................................................................... ....... 73 GPS Radio Frequency Receive GPS Power Levels and Signal-to-Noise Ratios ....... 82 GPS Radio Frequency Signal Levels and Power Spectra ............ .............. ...... ....... 82 Satellite Antenna Pattern .............. ...... ........... ........ ............ .......... ............................. 84 Signal Specifications ......................... ................................................................. ....... 87 User-Receiver Signal-lo-Noise Levels ..................................................................... 88 Recommendations for Future Enhancements to the GPS System .......................... 93 Detailed Signal Characteristics and Bounds on Pseudorange Tracking Accuracy..... 94 Cross-Correlation Properties-Worst Case ..... ............... ........... ............. ............. ..... 94 Coarsel Acquisition-Code Properties ......... ......... ................................................ ....... 97 Bounds on GPS Signal Tracking Performance in Presence of White Thermal Noise 106

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