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Gallium Nitride Electronics.pdf

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    Contents
    List of Symbols
    List of Acronyms
    1. Introduction
    2. III-N Materials, and the State-of-the-Art of Devices and Circuits
    2.1 State-of-the-Art of Materials Research
    2.1.1 Binary Materials
    2.1.2 Material Limitations
    2.1.3 Thermal Properties and Limitations
    2.1.4 Ternary and Quaternary III-N Materials
    2.2 Polar Semiconductors for Electronics
    2.2.1 Spontaneous Polarization
    2.2.2 Piezoelectric Polarization
    2.2.3 Device Design Using Polarization-Induced Charges
    2.2.4 Analytical Calculation of Channel Charge Concentrations
    2.2.5 Doping Issues
    2.2.6 Surfaces and Interfaces
    2.2.7 Transport Properties in Polarized Semiconductors
    2.2.8 Polarization-Based Devices and Their Specific Properties
    2.3 Electrical and Thermal Limitations of Materials and Devices
    2.3.1 Physical Modeling of Devices
    2.3.2 Devices: Figures-of-Merit
    2.3.3 III-N Devices: Frequency Dispersion
    2.4 Substrates for Electronic Devices
    2.4.1 Criteria for Substrate Choice
    2.4.2 Silicon Carbide Substrates
    2.4.3 Sapphire Substrates
    2.4.4 Silicon Substrates
    2.4.5 GaN and AlN Substrates
    2.5 State-of-the-Art of Devices and Circuits
    2.5.1 Nitride-Based Diodes
    2.5.2 Power Electronics
    2.5.3 RF-Metal Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MESFETs)
    2.5.4 Metal Insulator Semiconductor Field-Effect Transistors (MISFETs)
    2.5.5 High-Electron Mobility Transistors (HEMTs)
    2.5.6 Heterojunction Bipolar Transistors (HBTs)
    2.5.7 MMIC HEMT Technology
    2.6 Applications Issues
    2.6.1 Broadband Communication
    2.6.2 Radar Components
    2.6.3 Electronics in Harsh Environments
    2.7 Problems
    3. Epitaxy for III-N-Based Electronic Devices
    3.1 The AlGaN/GaN Material System
    3.1.1 Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD)
    3.1.2 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
    3.1.3 MOCVD and MBE Growth on Alternative Substrates
    3.1.4 Epitaxial Lateral Overgrowth (ELO)
    3.1.5 Hydride Vapor Phase Epitaxy (HVPE)
    3.2 Indium-Based Compounds and Heterostructures
    3.2.1 MOCVD Growth of Indium-Based Layers
    3.2.2 MBE Growth of Indium-Based Layers
    3.2.3 Indium-Based Heterostructure Growth
    3.3 Doping and Defects
    3.3.1 MOCVD Growth
    3.3.2 MBE Growth
    3.4 Epitaxial Device Design
    3.4.1 Geometrical Considerations
    3.4.2 Growth of Cap Layers
    3.4.3 Doping
    3.4.4 AlN Interlayer
    3.4.5 Channel Concepts
    3.4.6 Epitaxial In-Situ Device Passivation
    3.5 Problems
    4. Device Processing Technology
    4.1 Processing Issues
    4.2 Device Isolation
    4.2.1 Mesa Structures
    4.2.2 Ion Implantation for Isolation
    4.3 Contact Formation
    4.3.1 Ohmic Contacts
    4.3.2 Schottky Contacts
    4.4 Lithography
    4.4.1 Optical Lithography
    4.4.2 Electron Beam Lithography
    4.4.3 Field Plates and Gate Extensions
    4.5 Etching and Recess Processes
    4.5.1 Dry Etching
    4.5.2 Wet Etching
    4.5.3 Recess Processes
    4.6 Surface Engineering and Device Passivation
    4.6.1 Passivation of the Ungated Device Region
    4.6.2 Physical Trapping Mechanisms
    4.6.3 Trap Characterization
    4.6.4 Technological Measures: Surface Preparation and Dielectrics
    4.6.5 Epitaxial Measures: Surface Preparation and Dielectrics
    4.7 Gate Dielectrics
    4.8 Processing for High-Temperature Operation
    4.9 Backside Processing
    4.9.1 Thinning Technologies
    4.9.2 Viahole Etching and Drilling Technologies
    4.9.3 Viahole Metallization
    4.10 Problems
    5. Device Characterization and Modeling
    5.1 Device Characteristics
    5.1.1 Compact FET Analysis
    5.1.2 Compact Bipolar Analysis
    5.2 Frequency Dispersion
    5.2.1 Dispersion Effects and Characterization
    5.2.2 Dispersion Characterization and Analysis
    5.2.3 Models for Frequency Dispersion in Devices
    5.2.4 Suppression of Frequency Dispersion
    5.3 Small-Signal Characterization, Analysis, and Modeling
    5.3.1 RF-Characterization and Invariants
    5.3.2 Common-Source HEMTs
    5.3.3 Dual-Gate HEMTs
    5.3.4 Pulsed-DC- and RF-Characteristics
    5.3.5 Small-Signal Modeling
    5.4 Large-Signal Analysis and Modeling
    5.4.1 Large-Signal Characterization and Loadpull Results
    5.4.2 Large-Signal Modeling
    5.5 Linearity Analysis and Modeling
    5.5.1 Basic Understanding
    5.5.2 Nitride-Specific Linearity Analysis
    5.6 Noise Analysis
    5.6.1 Low-Frequency Noise
    5.6.2 RF-Noise Analysis and Characterization
    5.7 Problems
    6. Circuit Considerations and III-N Examples
    6.1 Passive Circuit Modeling
    6.1.1 Coplanar-Waveguide Transmission-Line Elements
    6.1.2 Microstrip-Transmission-Line Elements
    6.2 High-Voltage High-Power Amplifiers
    6.2.1 Basic Principles of High-Voltage High-Power Operation
    6.2.2 General Design Considerations of III-N Amplifiers
    6.2.3 Mobile Communication Amplifiers Between 500MHz and 6GHz
    6.2.4 C-Frequency Band High-Power Amplifiers
    6.2.5 X-Band High-Power Amplifiers
    6.2.6 Design, Impedance Levels, and Matching Networks
    6.2.7 Broadband GaN Highly Linear Amplifiers
    6.2.8 GaN Mm-wave Power Amplifiers
    6.3 Robust GaN Low-Noise Amplifiers
    6.3.1 State-of-the-Art of GaN Low-Noise Amplifiers
    6.3.2 Examples of GaN MMIC LNAs
    6.4 Oscillators, Mixers, and Attenuators
    6.4.1 Oscillators
    6.4.2 GaN HEMT Mixer Circuits
    6.4.3 Attenuators and Switches
    6.5 Problems
    7. Reliability Aspects and High-Temperature Operation
    7.1 An Overview of Device Testing and of Failure Mechanisms
    7.1.1 Description of Device Degradation
    7.1.2 Degradation Mechanisms in III-N FETs
    7.1.3 III-V HBT Device Degradation
    7.2 Analysis of Nitride-Specific Degradation Mechanisms
    7.2.1 DC-Degradation
    7.2.2 RF-Degradation
    7.3 Failure Analysis
    7.3.1 Failure Mechanisms
    7.3.2 Reliability Case Studies
    7.4 Radiation Effects
    7.5 High-Temperature Operation
    7.6 Problems
    8. Integration, Thermal Management, and Packaging
    8.1 Passive MMIC Technologies
    8.1.1 Passive Element Technologies
    8.1.2 Microstrip Backend Technology
    8.2 Integration Issues
    8.3 Thermal Management
    8.3.1 Thermal Analysis
    8.3.2 Thermal Material Selection and Modeling
    8.3.3 Basic Thermal Findings, Heat Sources, and Thermal Resistances
    8.3.4 Backside Cooling
    8.3.5 Flip-Chip Integration
    8.3.6 Dynamic Thermal Effects
    8.4 Device and MMIC Packaging
    8.4.1 Dicing
    8.4.2 Die-Attach
    8.4.3 Package Technology Selection
    8.4.4 Thermal Management for Linear Applications
    8.4.5 Active Cooling
    8.5 Problems
    9. Outlook
    Appendix
    References of Chapter 2
    References of Chapter 3
    References of Chapter 4
    References of Chapter 5
    References of Chapter 6
    References of Chapter 7
    References of Chapter 8
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
    R
    S
    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Z
    Springer Series in mater ials science 96
    Springer Series in mater ials science Editors: R. Hull R. M. Osgood, Jr. J. Parisi H. Warlimont The Springer Series in Materials Science covers the complete spectrum of materials physics, including fundamental principles, physical properties, materials theory and design. Recogniz- ing the increasing importance of materials science in future device technologies, the book titles in this series reflect the state-of-the-art in understanding and controlling the structure and properties of all important classes of materials. 99 Self-Organized Morphology in Nanostructured Materials Editors: K. Al-Shamery and J. Parisi 100 Self Healing Materials An Alternative Approach to 20 Centuries of Materials Science Editor: S. van der Zwaag 101 New Organic Nanostructures for Next Generation Devices Editors: K. Al-Shamery, H.-G. Rubahn, and H. Sitter 102 Photonic Crystal Fibers Properties and Applications By F. Poli, A. Cucinotta, and S. Selleri 103 Polarons in Advanced Materials Editor: A.S. Alexandrov 104 Transparent Conductive Zinc Oxide Basics and Applications in Thin Film Solar Cells Editors: K. Ellmer, A. Klein, and B. Rech 105 Dilute III-V Nitride Semiconductors and Material Systems Physics and Technology Editor: A. Erol 106 Into The Nano Era Moore’s Law Beyond Planar Silicon CMOS Editor: H.R. Huff 107 Organic Semiconductors in Sensor Applications Editors: D.A. Bernards, R.M. Ownes, and G.G. Malliaras 108 Evolution of Thin-Film Morphology Modeling and Simulations By M. Pelliccione and T.-M. Lu 109 Reactive Sputter Deposition Editors: D. Depla amd S. Mahieu 110 The Physics of Organic Superconductors and Conductors Editor: A. Lebed Volumes 50–98 are listed at the end of the book.
    Rüdiger Quay Gallium Nitride Electronics 123
    Dr. Rüdiger Quay Fraunhofer Institut für Angewandte Festkörperphysik (IAF) Tullastr. 72, 79108, Freiburg, Germany Series Editors: Professor Robert Hull University of Virginia Dept. of Materials Science and Engineering Thornton Hall Charlottesville, VA 22903-2442, USA Professor Jürgen Parisi Universität Oldenburg, Fachbereich Physik Abt. Energie- und Halbleiterforschung Carl-von-Ossietzky-Strasse 9–11 26129 Oldenburg, Germany Professor R. M. Osgood, Jr. Microelectronics Science Laboratory Department of Electrical Engineering Columbia University Seeley W. Mudd Building New York, NY 10027, USA Professor Hans Warlimont Institut für Festkörper- und Werkstofforschung, Helmholtzstrasse 20 01069 Dresden, Germany ISBN 978-3-540-71890-1 e-ISBN 978-3-540-71892-5 DOI 10.1007/978-3-540-71892-5 Springer Series in Materials Sciences ISSN 0933-033X Library of Congress Control Number: 2008924620 © 2008 Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilm or in any other way, and storage in data banks. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the German Copyright Law of September 9, 1965, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Violations are liable for prosecution under the German Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. Typesetting and production: le-tex publishing services oHG, Leipzig, Germany Cover design: WMXDesign, Heidelberg, Germany Printed on acid-free paper 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com
    To our son, Jonathan Benedikt In memoriam, Oliver Winterer (1970–2006)
    Preface Electronic RF-communication and sensing systems have dramatically changed our daily lives since the invention of the first electronic transistor in 1947. Advanced semiconductor devices are key components within electronic sys- tems and ultimately determine their performance. In this never ending chal- lenge, wide-bandgap nitride semiconductors and heterostructure devices are unique contenders for future leading-edge electronic systems due to their out- standing material properties with respect to speed, power, efficiency, linearity, and robustness. At the same time, their material properties are challenging compared with any other material system due to high growth temperatures and many other intrinsic properties. Wide bandgap semiconductors have attracted a lot of attention in the last ten years due to their use in optoelectronic and electronic applications. The field is developing rapidly due to the high investments in US, Japanese, and increasing European research and development activities. Some of the knowledge acquired may not be available to the general public because of military or civil restrictions. However, this work compiles and systemizes the available knowledge and evaluates remaining issues. This book is of interest to graduate students of electrical engineering, communication engineering, and physics; to material, device, and circuit engineers in research and industry; and to scientists with general interest in advanced electronics. The author specially thanks those people, without whom and without whose individual contributions such a challenging work would have been impossible. He owes special thanks to: Prof. Dr. G¨unter Weimann, director of the Fraunhofer Institute of Applied Solid-State Physics (IAF), for his encouragement, his advice, and continuous support. Prof. Dr. Joachim Wagner for the encouragement to start this project. Prof. Dr. Siegfried Selberherr, Insitut f¨ur Mikroelektronik, TU Wien, for con- tinuous encouragement and support.
    VIII Preface Dr. Michael Schlechtweg, head of the RF-device and circuits department at Fraunhofer IAF, and Dr. Michael Mikulla, head of the technology department at Fraunhofer IAF, for their generous support. Dr. Rudolf Kiefer for his outstanding contributions and careful advise on the technology chapter, for his kind understanding, and for valuable discussions. Dipl.Phys. Stefan M¨uller and Dr. Klaus K¨ohler for their valuable contribu- tions of the epitaxy chapter and for proof reading. Dr. Friedbert van Raay for his proof reading, contributions to large-signal modeling and circuit design and for countless discussions on modeling, large- signal measurements, layout, and circuit design. Dr. Michael Dammann, Dipl.Ing. Helmer Konstanzer, and Andreas Michalov for their contributions and their work on device reliability. Dr. Wolfgang Bronner for his contributions to the development of technology and the SiC back-end process. Dr. Wilfried Pletschen for his thorough proof reading and his kind advise on etching. Dr. Matthias Seelmann-Eggebert for his inspired work on thermal simulations and large-signal modeling. Dr. Patrick Waltereit for numerous fruitful discussions on epitaxial and pro- cess development. Dipl.Ing. Daniel Krausse for his work on low-noise amplifiers. Dr. Vassil Palankovski and Dipl.Ing. Stanislav Vitanov, TU Vienna, for proof reading and their valuable support on physical device simulation. Dr. Axel Tessmann for his continuous good mood and valuable motivation for the development of mm-wave technology. Markus Riesle and Dr. Herbert Walcher for their contributions to the MMIC module and device packaging. Martin Zink and Ronny Kolbe for the patient dicing and picking of a numer- ous MMICs. Dipl.Ing. Christoph Schw¨orer for valuable discussions on circuit design and for his contribution on the broadband amplifiers. Dr. Lutz Kirste for his help on crystal structures. Dipl.Ing. Michael Kuri , Dipl.Ing. Hermann Massler and the members of the RF-devices and circuits characterization group at Fraunhofer IAF for their support. Dr. Arnulf Leuther for wise hints and good cooperation on process develop- ment. Fouad Benkhelifa for his creative and careful development of processing tech- nology and for active discussions. Further, I would like to thank the technical staff in the Fraunhofer RF-devices- and-circuit and technology-departments, especially Dr. Gundrun Kauffel and W. Fehrenbach.
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