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Beyond_Feelings_A_Guide_to_Critical_Thinking.pdf

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    Cover Page
    Title Page
    Copyright Page
    Dedication
    Contents
    Preface
    Introduction
    PART ONE The Context
    Chapter 1 Who Are You?
    The Influence of Time and Place
    The Influence of Ideas
    The Influence of Mass Culture
    The “Science” of Manipulation
    The Influence of Psychology
    Becoming an Individual
    Chapter 2 What Is Critical Thinking?
    Mind, Brain, or Both?
    Critical Thinking Defined
    Characteristics of Critical Thinkers
    The Role of Intuition
    Basic Activities in Critical Thinking
    Critical Thinking and Writing
    Critical Thinking and Discussion
    Avoiding Plagiarism
    Chapter 3 What Is Truth?
    Where Does It All Begin?
    Imperfect Perception
    Imperfect Memory
    Deficient Information
    Even the Wisest Can Err
    Truth Is Discovered, Not Created
    Understanding Cause and Effect
    Chapter 4 What Does It Mean to Know?
    Requirements of Knowing
    Testing Your Own Knowledge
    How We Come to Know
    Why Knowing Is Difficult
    A Cautionary Tale
    Is Faith a Form of Knowledge?
    Obstacles to Knowledge
    Chapter 5 How Good Are Your Opinions?
    Opinions Can Be Mistaken
    Opinions on Moral Issues
    Even Experts Can Be Wrong
    Kinds of Errors
    Informed Versus Uninformed Opinion
    Forming Opinions Responsibly
    Chapter 6 What Is Evidence?
    Kinds of Evidence
    Evaluating Evidence
    What Constitutes Sufficient Evidence?
    Chapter 7 What Is Argument?
    The Parts of an Argument
    Evaluating Arguments
    More Difficult Arguments
    PART TWO The Pitfalls
    Chapter 8 The Basic Problem: “Mine Is Better”
    Egocentric People
    Ethnocentric People
    Controlling “Mine-Is-Better” Thinking
    Chapter 9 Errors of Perspective
    Poverty of Aspect
    Unwarranted Assumptions
    The Either/Or Outlook
    Mindless Conformity
    Absolutism
    Relativism
    Bias for or Against Change
    Chapter 10 Errors of Procedure
    Biased Consideration of Evidence
    Double Standard
    Hasty Conclusion
    Overgeneralization and Stereotyping
    Oversimplification
    The Post Hoc Fallacy
    Chapter 11 Errors of Expression
    Contradiction
    Arguing in a Circle
    Meaningless Statement
    Mistaken Authority
    False Analogy
    Irrational Appeal
    Chapter 12 Errors of Reaction
    Automatic Rejection
    Changing the Subject
    Shifting the Burden of Proof
    Straw Man
    Attacking the Critic
    Chapter 13 The Errors in Combination
    Errors of Perspective
    Errors of Procedure
    Errors of Expression
    Errors of Reaction
    Sample Combinations of Errors
    A Sensible View of Terminology
    PART THREE A Strategy
    Chapter 14 Knowing Yourself
    Critical Thinking Inventory
    Using Your Inventory
    Challenge and Reward
    Chapter 15 Being Observant
    Observing People
    Observation in Science and Medicine
    The Range of Application
    Becoming More Observant
    Reflecting on Your Observations
    Chapter 16 Selecting an Issue
    The Basic Rule: Less Is More
    How to Limit an Issue
    Sample Issue: Pornography
    Sample Issue: Boxing
    Sample Issue: Juvenile Crime
    Narrowing the Issue Further
    Chapter 17 Conducting Inquiry
    Working with Inconclusive Results
    Where to Look for Information
    Keeping Focused
    How Much Inquiry Is Enough?
    Managing Lengthy Material
    Chapter 18 Forming a Judgment
    Evaluating Evidence
    Evaluating Your Sources’ Arguments
    Making Important Distinctions
    Expressing Judgments
    Chapter 19 Persuading Others
    Guidelines for Persuasion
    An Unpersuasive Presentation
    A Persuasive Presentation
    Notes
    Index
    rug38189_FM_i-xii.qxd 1/3/11 4:32 PM Page i Beyond Feelings A Guide to Critical Thinking N I N T H E D I T I O N Vincent Ryan Ruggiero Professor Emeritus of Humanities State University of New York, Delhi
    rug38189_FM_i-xii.qxd 1/3/11 4:32 PM Page ii BEYOND FEELINGS: A GUIDE TO CRITICAL THINKING, NINTH EDITION Published by McGraw-Hill, a business unit of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 1221 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10020. Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Previous editions © 2009, 2007 and 2004. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., including, but not limited to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning. Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States. This book is printed on acid-free paper. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN: 978-0-07-803818-1 MHID: 0-07-803818-9 Vice President & Editor-in-Chief: Michael Ryan Vice President EDP/Central Publishing Services: Kimberly Meriwether David Editorial Director: Beth Mejia Senior Managing Editor: Meghan Campbell Executive Marketing Manager: Pamela S. Cooper Senior Project Manager: Joyce Watters Buyer: Nicole Baumgartner Design Coordinator: Margarite Reynolds Media Project Manager: Sridevi Palani Compositor: Glyph International Typeface: 10/13 Palatino Printer: R. R. Donnelley All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Ruggiero, Vincent Ryan. Beyond feelings: a guide to critical thinking / Vincent Ryan Ruggiero. —9th ed. cm. p. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-07-803818-1 (alk. paper) 1. Critical thinking. I. Title. BF441.R85 2011 153.4’2—dc22 www.mhhe.com 2010042000
    rug38189_FM_i-xii.qxd 1/3/11 4:32 PM Page iii To the memory of Howard Trumble, whose quiet practice of the skills detailed in this book was an inspiration to me, to his family, and to all who knew him.
    rug38189_FM_i-xii.qxd 1/3/11 4:32 PM Page iv
    rug38189_FM_i-xii.qxd 1/3/11 4:32 PM Page v Contents Preface ix Introduction 1 PART ONE The Context 3 Chapter 1 Who Are You? 4 6 The Influence of Time and Place 4 The Influence of Ideas The Influence of Mass Culture 7 The “Science” of Manipulation 9 The Influence of Psychology 11 Becoming an Individual 13 Chapter 2 What Is Critical Thinking? 16 17 Mind, Brain, or Both? Critical Thinking Defined 18 Characteristics of Critical Thinkers The Role of Intuition 22 Basic Activities in Critical Thinking 24 Critical Thinking and Writing 24 Critical Thinking and Discussion 25 Avoiding Plagiarism 27 20 Chapter 3 What Is Truth? 32 Where Does It All Begin? Imperfect Perception 34 33 v
    rug38189_FM_i-xii.qxd 1/3/11 4:32 PM Page vi vi CONTENTS Imperfect Memory 35 Deficient Information 35 Even the Wisest Can Err Truth Is Discovered, Not Created 37 Understanding Cause and Effect 38 36 Chapter 4 What Does It Mean to Know? 47 Requirements of Knowing 47 Testing Your Own Knowledge 48 How We Come to Know 50 Why Knowing Is Difficult A Cautionary Tale Is Faith a Form of Knowledge? Obstacles to Knowledge 53 54 51 55 Chapter 5 How Good Are Your Opinions? 59 Opinions Can Be Mistaken 61 Opinions on Moral Issues 61 Even Experts Can Be Wrong 63 Kinds of Errors 65 Informed Versus Uninformed Opinion 65 Forming Opinions Responsibly 67 Chapter 6 What Is Evidence? 72 73 Kinds of Evidence Evaluating Evidence What Constitutes Sufficient Evidence? 80 79 Chapter 7 What Is Argument? 83 The Parts of an Argument Evaluating Arguments 85 More Difficult Arguments 84 87 PART TWO The Pitfalls 93 Chapter 8 The Basic Problem: “Mine Is Better” 94 Egocentric People Ethnocentric People 96 Controlling “Mine-Is-Better” Thinking 97 95 Chapter 9 Errors of Perspective 102 Poverty of Aspect 102
    rug38189_FM_i-xii.qxd 1/3/11 4:32 PM Page vii CONTENTS vii 104 Unwarranted Assumptions The Either/Or Outlook 106 Mindless Conformity 107 Absolutism 108 Relativism 108 Bias for or Against Change 109 Chapter 10 Errors of Procedure 115 115 Biased Consideration of Evidence Double Standard 117 Hasty Conclusion 117 Overgeneralization and Stereotyping 118 Oversimplification 120 The Post Hoc Fallacy 121 Chapter 11 Errors of Expression 126 Contradiction 126 Arguing in a Circle 127 Meaningless Statement Mistaken Authority 129 False Analogy 129 Irrational Appeal 130 128 Chapter 12 Errors of Reaction 135 Automatic Rejection 137 Changing the Subject 138 Shifting the Burden of Proof Straw Man 139 Attacking the Critic 140 139 Chapter 13 The Errors in Combination 144 Errors of Perspective 144 Errors of Procedure 146 Errors of Expression 147 Errors of Reaction 149 Sample Combinations of Errors 150 A Sensible View of Terminology 152 PART THREE A Strategy 157 Chapter 14 Knowing Yourself 158 Critical Thinking Inventory 159
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