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DAFX: Digital Audio Effects Second Edition DAFX: Digital Audio Effects, S econd Edition. Edited by U do Z ¨olzer. © 2011 J ohn Wiley & Sons , Ltd. P ublis hed 2011 by J ohn Wiley & Sons , Ltd. ISBN: 978-0-470-66599-2

DAFX: Digital Audio Effects Second Edition Edited by Udo Z¨olzer Helmut Schmidt University – University of the Federal Armed Forces, Hamburg, Germany A John Wiley and Sons, Ltd., Publication

This edition ﬁrst published 2011 © 2011 John Wiley & Sons Ltd Registered ofﬁce John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial ofﬁces, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com. The right of the author to be identiﬁed as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular use of the MATLAB® software. Library of Congress Cataloguing-in-Publication Data Z¨olzer, Udo. DAFX : digital audio effects / Udo Z¨olzer. – 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-66599-2 (hardback) 1. Computer sound processing. 2. Sound–Recording and reproducing–Digital techniques. 3. Signal processing–Digital techniques. I. Title. TK5105.8863.Z65 2011 006.5 – dc22 2010051411 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. Print ISBN: 978-0-470-66599-2 [HB] e-PDF ISBN: 978-1-119-99130-4 o-Book ISBN: 978-1-119-99129-8 e-Pub ISBN: 978-0-470-97967-9 Typeset in 9/11pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India

Contents Preface List of Contributors 1 Introduction V. Verfaille, M. Holters and U. Z¨olzer 1.1 Digital audio effects DAFX with MATLAB® 1.2 Classiﬁcations of DAFX 1.2.1 Classiﬁcation based on underlying techniques 1.2.2 Classiﬁcation based on perceptual attributes 1.2.3 Interdisciplinary classiﬁcation 1.3 Fundamentals of digital signal processing 1.3.1 Digital signals 1.3.2 Spectrum analysis of digital signals 1.3.3 Digital systems 1.4 Conclusion References 2 Filters and delays P. Dutilleux, M. Holters, S. Disch and U. Z¨olzer 2.1 Introduction 2.2 Basic ﬁlters 2.2.1 Filter classiﬁcation in the frequency domain 2.2.2 Canonical ﬁlters 2.2.3 State variable ﬁlter 2.2.4 Normalization 2.2.5 Allpass-based ﬁlters 2.2.6 FIR ﬁlters 2.2.7 Convolution 2.3 Equalizers 2.3.1 Shelving ﬁlters 2.3.2 Peak ﬁlters 2.4 Time-varying ﬁlters 2.4.1 Wah-wah ﬁlter 2.4.2 Phaser 2.4.3 Time-varying equalizers xiii xv 1 1 3 5 7 14 20 20 23 33 42 43 47 47 48 48 48 50 51 52 57 60 61 62 64 67 67 68 69

vi CONTENTS 2.5 Basic delay structures 2.5.1 FIR comb ﬁlter 2.5.2 IIR comb ﬁlter 2.5.3 Universal comb ﬁlter 2.5.4 Fractional delay lines 2.6 Delay-based audio effects 2.6.1 Vibrato 2.6.2 Flanger, chorus, slapback, echo 2.6.3 Multiband effects 2.6.4 Natural sounding comb ﬁlter 2.7 Conclusion Sound and music References 3 Modulators and demodulators P. Dutilleux, M. Holters, S. Disch and U. Z¨olzer 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Modulators 3.2.1 Ring modulator 3.2.2 Amplitude modulator 3.2.3 Single-side-band modulator 3.2.4 Frequency and phase modulator 3.3 Demodulators 3.3.1 Detectors 3.3.2 Averagers 3.3.3 Amplitude scalers 3.3.4 Typical applications 3.4 Applications 3.4.1 Vibrato 3.4.2 Stereo phaser 3.4.3 Rotary loudspeaker effect 3.4.4 SSB effects 3.4.5 Simple morphing: amplitude following 3.4.6 Modulation vocoder 3.5 Conclusion Sound and music References 4 Nonlinear processing P. Dutilleux, K. Dempwolf, M. Holters and U. Z¨olzer 4.1 Introduction 4.1.1 Basics of nonlinear modeling 4.2 Dynamic range control 4.2.1 Limiter 4.2.2 Compressor and expander 4.2.3 Noise gate 4.2.4 De-esser 4.2.5 Inﬁnite limiters 4.3 Musical distortion and saturation effects 4.3.1 Valve simulation 4.3.2 Overdrive, distortion and fuzz 70 70 71 72 73 75 75 76 78 79 79 80 80 83 83 83 83 84 86 86 90 90 90 91 91 92 92 92 93 94 94 96 97 98 98 101 101 103 106 109 110 113 115 115 115 115 124

CONTENTS vii 4.3.3 Harmonic and subharmonic generation 4.3.4 Tape saturation 4.4 Exciters and enhancers 4.4.1 Exciters 4.4.2 Enhancers 4.5 Conclusion Sound and music References 5 Spatial effects V. Pulkki, T. Lokki and D. Rocchesso 5.1 5.2 Concepts of spatial hearing Introduction 5.2.1 Head-related transfer functions 5.2.2 Perception of direction 5.2.3 Perception of the spatial extent of the sound source 5.2.4 Room effect 5.2.5 Perception of distance 5.3 Basic spatial effects for stereophonic loudspeaker and headphone playback 5.3.1 Amplitude panning in loudspeakers 5.3.2 Time and phase delays in loudspeaker playback 5.3.3 Listening to two-channel stereophonic material with headphones 5.4 Binaural techniques in spatial audio 5.4.1 Listening to binaural recordings with headphones 5.4.2 Modeling HRTF ﬁlters 5.4.3 HRTF processing for headphone listening 5.4.4 Virtual surround listening with headphones 5.4.5 Binaural techniques with cross-talk canceled loudspeakers 5.5 Spatial audio effects for multichannel loudspeaker layouts 2-D loudspeaker setups 3-D loudspeaker setups 5.5.1 Loudspeaker layouts 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.4 Coincident microphone techniques and Ambisonics 5.5.5 Synthesizing the width of virtual sources 5.5.6 Time delay-based systems 5.5.7 Time-frequency processing of spatial audio 5.6 Reverberation 5.6.1 Basics of room acoustics 5.6.2 Convolution with room impulse responses 5.7 Modeling of room acoustics 5.7.1 Classic reverb tools 5.7.2 Feedback delay networks 5.7.3 Time-variant reverberation 5.7.4 Modeling reverberation with a room geometry 5.8 Other spatial effects 5.8.1 Digital versions of classic reverbs 5.8.2 Distance effects 5.8.3 Doppler effect 5.9 Conclusion Acknowledgements References 130 132 132 132 135 135 137 137 139 139 140 140 140 141 142 142 143 143 145 147 147 147 148 149 150 151 153 153 154 156 157 159 160 161 164 164 164 166 166 169 173 173 175 175 176 178 179 180 180

viii CONTENTS 6 Time-segment processing Introduction P. Dutilleux, G. De Poli, A. von dem Knesebeck and U. Z¨olzer 6.1 6.2 Variable speed replay 6.3 Time stretching 6.3.1 Historical methods – Phonog`ene 6.3.2 Synchronous overlap and add (SOLA) 6.3.3 Pitch-synchronous overlap and add (PSOLA) 6.4 Pitch shifting 6.4.1 Historical methods – Harmonizer 6.4.2 Pitch shifting by time stretching and resampling 6.4.3 Pitch shifting by delay-line modulation 6.4.4 Pitch shifting by PSOLA and formant preservation 6.5 Time shufﬂing and granulation 6.5.1 Time shufﬂing 6.5.2 Granulation 6.6 Conclusion Sound and music References 7 Time-frequency processing D. Arﬁb, F. Keiler, U. Z¨olzer, V. Verfaille and J. Bonada 7.1 7.2 Phase vocoder basics Introduction 7.2.1 Filter bank summation model 7.2.2 Block-by-block analysis/synthesis model 7.3 Phase vocoder implementations 7.3.1 Filter bank approach 7.3.2 Direct FFT/IFFT approach 7.3.3 FFT analysis/sum of sinusoids approach 7.3.4 Gaboret approach 7.3.5 Phase unwrapping and instantaneous frequency 7.4 Phase vocoder effects 7.4.1 Time-frequency ﬁltering 7.4.2 Dispersion 7.4.3 Time stretching 7.4.4 Pitch shifting 7.4.5 Stable/transient components separation 7.4.6 Mutation between two sounds 7.4.7 Robotization 7.4.8 Whisperization 7.4.9 Denoising 7.4.10 Spectral panning 7.5 Conclusion References 8 Source-ﬁlter processing Introduction D. Arﬁb, F. Keiler, U. Z¨olzer and V. Verfaille 8.1 8.2 Source-ﬁlter separation 8.2.1 Channel vocoder 8.2.2 Linear predictive coding (LPC) 185 185 186 189 190 191 194 199 200 201 203 205 210 210 211 215 215 215 219 219 219 221 224 226 226 232 235 237 241 243 243 247 249 258 263 265 268 270 271 274 276 277 279 279 280 281 283

8.2.3 Cepstrum 8.3 Source-ﬁlter transformations 8.3.1 Vocoding or cross-synthesis 8.3.2 Formant changing 8.3.3 Spectral interpolation 8.3.4 Pitch shifting with formant preservation 8.4 Conclusion References 9 Adaptive digital audio effects V. Verfaille, D. Arﬁb, F. Keiler, A. von dem Knesebeck and U. Z¨olzer 9.1 9.2 Sound-feature extraction Introduction 9.2.1 General comments 9.2.2 Loudness-related sound features 9.2.3 Time features: beat detection and tracking 9.2.4 Pitch extraction 9.2.5 Spatial hearing cues 9.2.6 Timbral features 9.2.7 Statistical features 9.3 Mapping sound features to control parameters 9.3.1 The mapping structure 9.3.2 Sound-feature combination 9.3.3 Control-signal conditioning 9.4 Examples of adaptive DAFX 9.4.1 Adaptive effects on loudness 9.4.2 Adaptive effects on time 9.4.3 Adaptive effects on pitch 9.4.4 Adaptive effects on timbre 9.4.5 Adaptive effects on spatial perception 9.4.6 Multi-dimensional adaptive effects 9.4.7 Concatenative synthesis 9.5 Conclusions References 10 Spectral processing J. Bonada, X. Serra, X. Amatriain and A. Loscos 10.1 Introduction 10.2 Spectral models 10.2.1 Sinusoidal model 10.2.2 Sinusoidal plus residual model 10.3 Techniques 10.3.1 Short-time fourier transform 10.3.2 Spectral peaks 10.3.3 Spectral sinusoids 10.3.4 Spectral harmonics 10.3.5 Spectral harmonics plus residual 10.3.6 Spectral harmonics plus stochastic residual 10.4 Effects 10.4.1 Sinusoidal plus residual 10.4.2 Harmonic plus residual 10.4.3 Combined effects CONTENTS ix 290 300 300 306 312 314 319 320 321 321 324 324 328 331 335 360 361 369 369 369 370 371 371 371 372 376 377 380 382 384 388 388 393 393 395 395 396 397 397 402 404 411 416 419 424 424 430 436

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