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Security Engineering, 2nd Edition.pdf

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    Security Engineering
    Contents
    Preface to the Second Edition
    Foreword by Bruce Schneier
    Preface
    Acknowledgments
    Part I
    Chapter 1 What Is Security Engineering?
    Introduction
    A Framework
    Example 1–A Bank
    Example 2–A Military Base
    Example 3–A Hospital
    Example 4–The Home
    Definitions
    Summary
    Chapter 2 Usability and Psychology
    Introduction
    Attacks Based on Psychology
    Pretexting
    Phishing
    Insights from Psychology Research
    What the Brain Does Worse Than the Computer
    Perceptual Bias and Behavioural Economics
    Different Aspects of Mental Processing
    Differences Between People
    Social Psychology
    What the Brain Does Better Than Computer
    Passwords
    Difficulties with Reliable Password Entry
    Difficulties with Remembering the Password
    Naive Password Choice
    User Abilities and Training
    Design Errors
    Operational Issues
    Social-Engineering Attacks
    Trusted Path
    Phishing Countermeasures
    Password Manglers
    Client Certs or Specialist Apps
    Using the Browser’s Password Database
    Soft Keyboards
    Customer Education
    Microsoft Passport
    Phishing Alert Toolbars
    Two-Factor Authentication
    Trusted Computing
    Fortified Password Protocols
    Two-Channel Authentication
    The Future of Phishing
    System Issues
    Can You Deny Service?
    Protecting Oneself or Others?
    Attacks on Password Entry
    Interface Design
    Eavesdropping
    Technical Defeats of Password Retry Counters
    Attacks on Password Storage
    One-Way Encryption
    Password Cracking
    Absolute Limits
    CAPTCHAs
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 3 Protocols
    Introduction
    Password Eavesdropping Risks
    Who Goes There?— Simple Authentication
    Challenge and Response
    The MIG-in-the-Middle Attack
    Reflection Attacks
    Manipulating the Message
    Changing the Environment
    Chosen Protocol Attacks
    Managing Encryption Keys
    Basic Key Management
    The Needham-Schroeder Protocol
    Kerberos
    Practical Key Management
    Getting Formal
    A Typical Smartcard Banking Protocol
    The BAN Logic
    Verifying the Payment Protocol
    Limitations of Formal Verification
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 4 Access Control
    Introduction
    Operating System Access Controls
    Groups and Roles
    Access Control Lists
    Unix Operating System Security
    Apple’s OS/X
    Windows—Basic Architecture
    Capabilities
    Windows—Added Features
    Middleware
    Database Access Controls
    General Middleware Issues
    ORBs and Policy Languages
    Sandboxing and Proof-Carrying Code
    Virtualization
    Trusted Computing
    Hardware Protection
    Intel Processors, and ‘Trusted Computing’
    ARM Processors
    Security Processors
    What Goes Wrong
    Smashing the Stack
    Other Technical Attacks
    User Interface Failures
    Why So Many Things Go Wrong
    Remedies
    Environmental Creep
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 5 Cryptography
    Introduction
    Historical Background
    An Early Stream Cipher—The Vigen`ere
    The One-Time Pad
    An Early Block Cipher—Playfair
    One-Way Functions
    Asymmetric Primitives
    The Random Oracle Model
    Random Functions—Hash Functions
    Properties
    The Birthday Theorem
    Random Generators —Stream Ciphers
    Random Permutations — Block Ciphers
    Public Key Encryption and Trapdoor One-Way Permutations
    Digital Signatures
    Symmetric Crypto Primitives
    SP-Networks
    Block Size
    Number of Rounds
    Choice of S-Boxes
    Linear Cryptanalysis
    Differential Cryptanalysis
    Serpent
    The Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)
    Feistel Ciphers
    The Luby-Rackoff Result
    DES
    Modes of Operation
    Electronic Code Book
    Cipher Block Chaining
    Output Feedback
    Counter Encryption
    Cipher Feedback
    Message Authentication Code
    Composite Modes of Operation
    Hash Functions
    Extra Requirements on the Underlying Cipher
    Common Hash Functions and Applications
    Asymmetric Crypto Primitives
    Cryptography Based on Factoring
    Cryptography Based on Discrete Logarithms
    Public Key Encryption —Diffie Hellman and ElGamal
    Key Establishment
    Digital Signature
    Special Purpose Primitives
    Elliptic Curve Cryptography
    Certification
    The Strength of Asymmetric Cryptographic Primitives
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 6 Distributed Systems
    Introduction
    Concurrency
    Using Old Data Versus Paying to Propagate State
    Locking to Prevent Inconsistent Updates
    The Order of Updates
    Deadlock
    Non-Convergent State
    Secure Time
    Fault Tolerance and Failure Recovery
    Failure Models
    Byzantine Failure
    Interaction with Fault Tolerance
    What Is Resilience For?
    At What Level Is the Redundancy?
    Service-Denial Attacks
    Naming
    The Distributed Systems View of Naming
    What Else Goes Wrong
    Naming and Identity
    Cultural Assumptions
    Semantic Content of Names
    Uniqueness of Names
    Stability of Names and Addresses
    Adding Social Context to Naming
    Restrictions on the Use of Names
    Types of Name
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 7 Economics
    Introduction
    Classical Economics
    Monopoly
    Public Goods
    Information Economics
    The Price of Information
    The Value of Lock-In
    Asymmetric Information
    Game Theory
    The Prisoners’ Dilemma
    Evolutionary Games
    The Economics of Security and Dependability
    Weakest Link, or Sum of Efforts?
    Managing the Patching Cycle
    Why Is Windows So Insecure?
    Economics of Privacy
    Economics of DRM
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Part II
    Chapter 8 Multilevel Security
    Introduction
    What Is a Security Policy Model?
    The Bell-LaPadula Security Policy Model
    Classifications and Clearances
    Information Flow Control
    The Standard Criticisms of Bell-LaPadula
    Alternative Formulations
    The Biba Model and Vista
    Historical Examples of MLS Systems
    SCOMP
    Blacker
    MLS Unix and Compartmented Mode Workstations
    The NRL Pump
    Logistics Systems
    Sybard Suite
    Wiretap Systems
    Future MLS Systems
    Vista
    Linux
    Virtualization
    Embedded Systems
    What Goes Wrong
    Composability
    The Cascade Problem
    Covert Channels
    The Threat from Viruses
    Polyinstantiation
    Other Practical Problems
    Broader Implications of MLS
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 9 Multilateral Security
    Introduction
    Compartmentation, the Chinese Wall and the BMA Model
    Compartmentation and the Lattice Model
    The Chinese Wall
    The BMA Model
    The Threat Model
    The Security Policy
    Pilot Implementations
    Current Privacy Issues
    Inference Control
    Basic Problems of Inference Control in Medicine
    Other Applications of Inference Control
    The Theory of Inference Control
    Query Set Size Control
    Trackers
    More Sophisticated Query Controls
    Cell Suppression
    Maximum Order Control and the Lattice Model
    Audit Based Control
    Randomization
    Limitations of Generic Approaches
    Active Attacks
    The Value of Imperfect Protection
    The Residual Problem
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 10 Banking and Bookkeeping
    Introduction
    The Origins of Bookkeeping
    Double-Entry Bookkeeping
    A Telegraphic History of E-commerce
    How Bank Computer Systems Work
    The Clark-Wilson Security Policy Model
    Designing Internal Controls
    What Goes Wrong
    Wholesale Payment Systems
    SWIFT
    What Goes Wrong
    Automatic Teller Machines
    ATM Basics
    What Goes Wrong
    Incentives and Injustices
    Credit Cards
    Fraud
    Forgery
    Automatic Fraud Detection
    The Economics of Fraud
    Online Credit Card Fraud —the Hype and the Reality
    Smartcard-Based Banking
    EMV
    Static Data Authentication
    Dynamic Data Authentication
    Combined Data Authentication
    RFID
    Home Banking and Money Laundering
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 11 Physical Protection
    Introduction
    Threats and Barriers
    Threat Model
    Deterrence
    Walls and Barriers
    Mechanical Locks
    Electronic Locks
    Alarms
    How not to Protect a Painting
    Sensor Defeats
    Feature Interactions
    Attacks on Communications
    Lessons Learned
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 12 Monitoring and Metering
    Introduction
    Prepayment Meters
    Utility Metering
    How the System Works
    What Goes Wrong
    Taxi Meters, Tachographs and Truck Speed Limiters
    The Tachograph
    What Goes Wrong
    How Most Tachograph Manipulation Is Done
    Tampering with the Supply
    Tampering with the Instrument
    High-Tech Attacks
    The Digital Tachograph Project
    System Level Problems
    Other Problems
    The Resurrecting Duckling
    Postage Meters
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 13 Nuclear Command and Control
    Introduction
    The Evolution of Command and Control
    The Kennedy Memorandum
    Authorization, Environment, Intent
    Unconditionally Secure Authentication
    Shared Control Schemes
    Tamper Resistance and PALs
    Treaty Verification
    What Goes Wrong
    Secrecy or Openness?
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 14 Security Printing and Seals
    Introduction
    History
    Security Printing
    Threat Model
    Security Printing Techniques
    Packaging and Seals
    Substrate Properties
    The Problems of Glue
    PIN Mailers
    Systemic Vulnerabilities
    Peculiarities of the Threat Model
    Anti-Gundecking Measures
    The Effect of Random Failure
    Materials Control
    Not Protecting the Right Things
    The Cost and Nature of Inspection
    Evaluation Methodology
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 15 Biometrics
    Introduction
    Handwritten Signatures
    Face Recognition
    Bertillonage
    Fingerprints
    Verifying Positive or Negative Identity Claims
    Crime Scene Forensics
    Iris Codes
    Voice Recognition
    Other Systems
    What Goes Wrong
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 16 Physical Tamper Resistance
    Introduction
    History
    High-End Physically Secure Processors
    Evaluation
    Medium Security Processors
    The iButton
    The Dallas 5000 Series
    FPGA Security, and the Clipper Chip
    Smartcards and Microcontrollers
    History
    Architecture
    Security Evolution
    The State of the Art
    Defense in Depth
    Stop Loss
    What Goes Wrong
    The Trusted Interface Problem
    Conflicts
    The Lemons Market, Risk Dumping and Evaluation
    Security-By-Obscurity
    Interaction with Policy
    Function Creep
    So What Should One Protect?
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 17 Emission Security
    Introduction
    History
    Technical Surveillance and Countermeasures
    Passive Attacks
    Leakage Through Power and Signal Cables
    Red/Black Separation
    Timing Analysis
    Power Analysis
    Leakage Through RF Signals
    Active Attacks
    Tempest Viruses
    Nonstop
    Glitching
    Differential Fault Analysis
    Combination Attacks
    Commercial Exploitation
    Defenses
    Optical, Acoustic and Thermal Side Channels
    How Serious are Emsec Attacks?
    Governments
    Businesses
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 18 API Attacks
    Introduction
    API Attacks on Security Modules
    The XOR-To-Null-Key Attack
    The Attack on the 4758
    Multiparty Computation, and Differential Protocol Attacks
    The EMV Attack
    API Attacks on Operating Systems
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 19 Electronic and Information Warfare
    Introduction
    Basics
    Communications Systems
    Signals Intelligence Techniques
    Attacks on Communications
    Protection Techniques
    Frequency Hopping
    DSSS
    Burst Communications
    Combining Covertness and Jam Resistance
    Interaction Between Civil and Military Uses
    Surveillance and Target Acquisition
    Types of Radar
    Jamming Techniques
    Advanced Radars and Countermeasures
    Other Sensors and Multisensor Issues
    IFF Systems
    Improvised Explosive Devices
    Directed Energy Weapons
    Information Warfare
    Definitions
    Doctrine
    Potentially Useful Lessons from Electronic Warfare
    Differences Between E-war and I-war
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 20 Telecom System Security
    Introduction
    Phone Phreaking
    Attacks on Metering
    Attacks on Signaling
    Attacks on Switching and Configuration
    Insecure End Systems
    Feature Interaction
    Mobile Phones
    Mobile Phone Cloning
    GSM Security Mechanisms
    Third Generation Mobiles —3gpp
    Platform Security
    So Was Mobile Security a Success or a Failure?
    VOIP
    Security Economics of Telecomms
    Frauds by Phone Companies
    Billing Mechanisms
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 21 Network Attack and Defense
    Introduction
    Vulnerabilities in Network Protocols
    Attacks on Local Networks
    Attacks Using Internet Protocols and Mechanisms
    SYN Flooding
    Smurfing
    Distributed Denial of Service Attacks
    Spam
    DNS Security and Pharming
    Trojans, Viruses, Worms and Rootkits
    Early History of Malicious Code
    The Internet Worm
    How Viruses and Worms Work
    The History of Malware
    Countermeasures
    Defense Against Network Attack
    Configuration Management and Operational Security
    Filtering: Firewalls, Spam Filters, Censorware and Wiretaps
    Packet Filtering
    Circuit Gateways
    Application Relays
    Ingress Versus Egress Filtering
    Architecture
    Intrusion Detection
    Types of Intrusion Detection
    General Limitations of Intrusion Detection
    Specific Problems Detecting Network Attacks
    Encryption
    SSH
    WiFi
    Bluetooth
    HomePlug
    IPsec
    TLS
    PKI
    Topology
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 22 Copyright and DRM
    Introduction
    Copyright
    Software
    Books
    Audio
    Video and Pay-TV
    Typical System Architecture
    Video Scrambling Techniques
    Attacks on Hybrid Scrambling Systems
    DVB
    DVD
    HD-DVD and Blu-ray
    AACS—Broadcast Encryption and Traitor Tracing
    Blu-ray and SPDC
    General Platforms
    Windows Media Rights Management
    Other Online Rights-Management Systems
    Peer-to-Peer Systems
    Rights Management of Semiconductor IP
    Information Hiding
    Watermarks and Copy Generation Management
    General Information Hiding Techniques
    Attacks on Copyright Marking Schemes
    Applications of Copyright Marking Schemes
    Policy
    The IP Lobby
    Who Benefits?
    Accessory Control
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 23 The Bleeding Edge
    Introduction
    Computer Games
    Types of Cheating
    Aimbots and Other Unauthorized Software
    Virtual Worlds, Virtual Economies
    Web Applications
    eBay
    Google
    Social Networking Sites
    Privacy Technology
    Anonymous Email —The Dining Cryptographers and Mixes
    Anonymous Web Browsing—Tor
    Confidential and Anonymous Phone Calls
    Email Encryption
    Steganography and Forensics Countermeasures
    Putting It All Together
    Elections
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Part III
    Chapter 24 Terror, Justice and Freedom
    Introduction
    Terrorism
    Causes of Political Violence
    The Psychology of Political Violence
    The Role of Political Institutions
    The Role of the Press
    The Democratic Response
    Surveillance
    The History of Government Wiretapping
    The Growing Controversy about Traffic Analysis
    Unlawful Surveillance
    Access to Search Terms and Location Data
    Data Mining
    Surveillance via ISPs —Carnivore and its Offspring
    Communications Intelligence on Foreign Targets
    Intelligence Strengths and Weaknesses
    The Crypto Wars
    The Back Story to Crypto Policy
    DES and Crypto Research
    The Clipper Chip
    Did the Crypto Wars Matter?
    Export Control
    Censorship
    Censorship by Authoritarian Regimes
    Network Neutrality
    Peer-to-Peer, Hate Speech and Child Porn
    Forensics and Rules of Evidence
    Forensics
    Admissibility of Evidence
    Privacy and Data Protection
    European Data Protection
    Differences between Europe and the USA
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 25 Managing the Development of Secure Systems
    Introduction
    Managing a Security Project
    A Tale of Three Supermarkets
    Risk Management
    Organizational Issues
    The Complacency Cycle and the Risk Thermostat
    Interaction with Reliability
    Solving the Wrong Problem
    Incompetent and Inexperienced Security Managers
    Moral Hazard
    Methodology
    Top-Down Design
    Iterative Design
    Lessons from Safety-Critical Systems
    Security Requirements Engineering
    Managing Requirements Evolution
    Bug Fixing
    Control Tuning and Corporate Governance
    Evolving Environments and the Tragedy of the Commons
    Organizational Change
    Managing Project Requirements
    Parallelizing the Process
    Risk Management
    Managing the Team
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 26 System Evaluation and Assurance
    Introduction
    Assurance
    Perverse Economic Incentives
    Project Assurance
    Security Testing
    Formal Methods
    Quis Custodiet?
    Process Assurance
    Assurance Growth
    Evolution and Security Assurance
    Evaluation
    Evaluations by the Relying Party
    The Common Criteria
    What the Common Criteria Don’t Do
    Corruption, Manipulation and Inertia
    Ways Forward
    Hostile Review
    Free and Open-Source Software
    Semi-Open Design
    Penetrate-and-Patch, CERTs, and Bugtraq
    Education
    Summary
    Research Problems
    Further Reading
    Chapter 27 Conclusions
    Bibliography
    Index
    Security Engineering A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems Second Edition Ross J. Anderson Wiley Publishing, Inc.
    Security Engineering: A Guide to Building Dependable Distributed Systems, Second Edition Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc. 10475 Crosspoint Boulevard Indianapolis, IN 46256 Copyright  2008 by Ross J. Anderson. All Rights Reserved. Published by Wiley Publishing, Inc., Indianapolis, Indiana Published simultaneously in Canada ISBN: 978-0-470-06852-6 Manufactured in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978) 750-8400, fax (978) 646-8600. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Legal Department, Wiley Publishing, Inc., 10475 Crosspoint Blvd., Indianapolis, IN 46256, (317) 572-3447, fax (317) 572-4355, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permissions. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: The publisher and the author make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this work and specifically disclaim all warranties, including without limitation warranties of fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales or promotional materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for every situation. This work is sold with the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering legal, accounting, or other professional services. If professional assistance is required, the services of a competent professional person should be sought. Neither the publisher nor the author shall be liable for damages arising herefrom. The fact that an organization or Website is referred to in this work as a citation and/or a potential source of further information does not mean that the author or the publisher endorses the information the organization or Website may provide or recommendations it may make. Further, readers should be aware that Internet Websites listed in this work may have changed or disappeared between when this work was written and when it is read. For general information on our other products and services or to obtain technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the U.S. at (800) 762-2974, outside the U.S. at (317) 572-3993 or fax (317) 572-4002. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Anderson, Ross, 1956- Security engineering : a guide to building dependable distributed systems / Ross J Anderson. — 2nd ed. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-06852-6 (cloth) 1. Computer security. 2. Electronic data processing–Distributed processing. I. Title. QA76.9.A25A54 2008 005.1–dc22 2008006392 Trademarks: Wiley, the Wiley logo, and related trade dress are trademarks or registered trademarks of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and/or its affiliates, in the United States and other countries, and may not be used without written permission. All other trademarks are the property of their respective owners. Wiley Publishing, Inc. is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books.
    To Shireen
    Credits Executive Editor Carol Long Senior Development Editor Tom Dinse Production Editor Tim Tate Editorial Manager Mary Beth Wakefield Production Manager Tim Tate Vice President and Executive Group Publisher Richard Swadley Vice President and Executive Publisher Joseph B. Wikert Project Coordinator, Cover Lynsey Stanford Proofreader Nancy Bell Indexer Jack Lewis Cover Image  Digital Vision/Getty Images Cover Design Michael E. Trent v
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