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Microchip Fabrication A Practical Guide to Semiconductor Process....pdf

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    32418_fm.pdf
    Front Matter
    About the Author
    Preface
    Table of Contents
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
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    32418_toc.pdf
    Front Matter
    Preface
    Table of Contents
    1. The Semiconductor Industry
    1.1 Overview
    1.2 Objectives
    1.3 Birth of an Industry
    1.4 The Solid-State Era
    1.5 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
    1.6 Process and Product Trends
    1.7 Industry Organization
    1.8 Stages of Manufacturing
    1.9 The Junction Transistor
    1.10 Five Decades of Industry Development
    1.11 The Nano Era
    1.12 Review Questions
    1.13 References
    2. Properties of Semiconductor Materials and Chemicals
    2.1 Overview
    2.2 Objectives
    2.3 Atomic Structure
    2.4 The Periodic Table of the Elements
    2.5 Electrical Conduction
    2.6 Dielectrics and Capacitors
    2.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
    2.8 Doped Semiconductors
    2.9 Electron and Hole Conduction
    2.10 Semiconductor Production Materials
    2.11 Semiconducting Compounds
    2.12 Silicon Germanium
    2.13 Engineered Substrates
    2.14 Ferroelectric Materials
    2.15 Diamond Semiconductors
    2.16 Process Chemicals
    2.17 States of Matter
    2.18 Properties of Matter
    2.19 Pressure and Vacuum
    2.20 Acids, Alkalis, and Solvents
    2.21 Chemical Purity and Cleanliness
    2.22 Review Questions
    2.23 References
    3. Crystal Growth and Silicon Wafer Preparation
    3.1 Overview
    3.2 Objectives
    3.3 Introduction
    3.4 Semiconductor Silicon Preparation
    3.5 Crystalline Materials
    3.6 Crystal Orientation
    3.7 Crystal Growth
    3.8 Crystal and Wafer Quality
    3.9 Wafer Preparation
    3.10 Wafer Slicing
    3.11 Wafer Marking
    3.12 Rough Polish
    3.13 Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP)
    3.14 Backside Processing
    3.15 Double-Sided Polishing
    3.16 Edge Grinding and Polishing
    3.17 Wafer Evaluation
    3.18 Oxidation
    3.19 Packaging
    3.20 Engineered Wafers (Substrates)
    3.21 Review Questions
    3.22 References
    4. Overview of Wafer Fabrication
    4.1 Overview
    4.2 Objectives
    4.3 Goal of Wafer Fabrication
    4.4 Wafer Terminology
    4.5 Basic Wafer-Fabrication Operations
    4.6 Example Fabrication Process
    4.7 Chip Terminology
    4.8 Wafer Sort
    4.9 Packaging
    4.10 Summary
    4.11 Review Questions
    4.12 References
    5. Contamination Control
    5.1 Overview
    5.2 Objectives
    5.3 Introduction
    5.4 Contamination Sources
    5.5 Cleanroom Construction
    5.6 Cleanroom Materials and Supplies
    5.7 Cleanroom Maintenance
    5.8 Wafer Surface Cleaning
    5.9 Review Questions
    5.10 References
    6. Productivity and Process Yields
    6.1 Overview
    6.2 Objectives
    6.3 Yield Measurement Points
    6.4 Accumulative Wafer-Fabrication Yield
    6.5 Wafer-Fabrication Yield Limiters
    6.6 Assembly and Final Test Yields
    6.7 Overall Process Yields
    6.8 Review Questions
    6.9 References
    7. Oxidation
    7.1 Overview
    7.2 Objectives
    7.3 Silicon Dioxide Layer Uses
    7.4 Thermal Oxidation Mechanisms
    7.5 Oxidation Processes
    7.6 Postoxidation Evaluation
    7.7 Review Questions
    7.8 References
    8. The Ten-Step Patterning Process - Surface Preparation to Exposure
    8.1 Overview
    8.2 Objectives
    8.3 Introduction
    8.4 Overview of the Photomasking Process
    8.5 Ten-Step Process
    8.6 Basic Photoresist Chemistry
    8.7 Photoresist Performance Factors
    8.8 Physical Properties of Photoresists
    8.9 Photomasking Processes
    8.10 Surface Preparation
    8.11 Photoresist Application (Spinning)
    8.12 Soft Bake
    8.13 Alignment and Exposure
    8.14 Advanced Lithography
    8.15 Review Questions
    8.16 References
    9. The Ten-Step Patterning Process - Developing to Final Inspection
    9.1 Overview
    9.2 Objectives
    9.3 Hard Bake
    9.4 Integrated Image Processing
    9.5 Etch
    9.6 Wet Etching
    9.7 Dry Etch
    9.8 Resist Stripping
    9.9 Final Inspection
    9.10 Mask Making
    9.11 Summary
    9.12 Review Questions
    9.13 References
    10. Advanced Photolithography Processes
    10.1 Overview
    10.2 Objectives
    10.3 Issues of VLSI/ULSI Patterning
    10.4 Other Exposure Issues
    10.5 Surface Problems
    10.6 Antireflective Coatings
    10.7 Photoresist Process Advances
    10.8 Improving Etch Definition
    10.9 Self-Aligned Structures
    10.10 Etch Profile Control
    10.11 Review Questions
    10.12 References
    11. Doping
    11.1 Overview
    11.2 Objectives
    11.3 Introduction
    11.4 Formation of a Doped Region by Diffusion
    11.5 Formation of a Doped Region and Junction by Diffusion
    11.6 Diffusion Process Steps
    11.7 Deposition
    11.8 Drive-in Oxidation
    11.9 Introduction to Ion Implantation
    11.10 Concept of Ion Implantation
    11.11 Ion Implantation System
    11.12 Dopant Concentration in Implanted Regions
    11.13 Evaluation of Implanted Layers
    11.14 Uses of Ion Implantation
    11.15 The Future of Doping
    11.16 Review Questions
    11.17 References
    12. Layer Deposition
    12.1 Overview
    12.2 Objectives
    12.3 Introduction
    12.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition Basics
    12.5 CVD Process Steps
    12.6 CVD System Types
    12.7 Atmospheric-Pressure CVD Systems
    12.8 Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD)
    12.9 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)
    12.10 Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE)
    12.11 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
    12.12 Metalorganic CVD (MOCVD)
    12.13 Deposited Films
    12.14 Deposited Semiconductors
    12.15 Epitaxial Silicon
    12.16 Polysilicon and Amorphous Silicon Deposition
    12.17 SOS and SOI
    12.18 Gallium Arsenide on Silicon
    12.19 Insulators and Dielectrics
    12.20 Conductors
    12.21 Review Questions
    12.22 References
    13. Metallization
    13.1 Overview
    13.2 Objectives
    13.3 Introduction
    13.4 Conductors - Single-Level Metal
    13.5 Conductors - Multilevel Metal Schemes
    13.6 Conductors
    13.7 Electrochemical Plating (ECP)
    13.8 Chemical Mechanical Processing
    13.9 Metal Film Uses
    13.10 Deposition Methods
    13.11 Vacuum Pumps
    13.12 Summary
    13.13 Review Questions
    13.14 References
    14. Process and Device Evaluation
    14.1 Overview
    14.2 Objectives
    14.3 Introduction
    14.4 Wafer Electrical Measurements
    14.5 Process and Device Evaluation
    14.6 Physical Measurement Methods
    14.7 Layer Thickness Measurements
    14.8 Junction Depth
    14.9 Contamination and Defect Detection
    14.10 General Surface Characterization
    14.11 Contamination Identification
    14.12 Device Electrical Measurements
    14.13 Review Questions
    14.14 References
    15. The Business of Wafer Fabrication
    15.1 Overview
    15.2 Objectives
    15.3 Wafer Fabrication Costs
    15.4 Equipment
    15.5 Automation
    15.6 Factory-Level Automation
    15.7 Equipment Standards
    15.8 Statistical Process Control (SPC)
    15.9 Inventory Control
    15.10 Quality Control and Certification - ISO 9000
    15.11 Line Organization
    15.12 Review Questions
    15.13 References
    16. Introduction to Devices and Integrated Circuit Formation
    16.1 Overview
    16.2 Objectives
    16.3 Semiconductor-Device Formation
    16.4 Alternative (Scaled) Transistor Designs
    16.5 Integrated-Circuit Formation
    16.6 Bi-MOS
    16.7 Superconductors
    16.8 Review Questions
    16.9 References
    17. Introduction to Integrated Circuits
    17.1 Overview
    17.2 Objectives
    17.3 Introduction
    17.4 Circuit Basics
    17.5 Integrated Circuit Types
    17.6 The Next Generation
    17.7 Review Questions
    17.8 References
    18. Packaging
    18.1 Overview
    18.2 Objectives
    18.3 Introduction
    18.4 Chip Characteristics
    18.5 Package Functions and Design
    18.6 Overview of Packaging Operations
    18.7 Packaging Processes
    18.8 Alternative Process
    18.9 Transfer to Packaging Area
    18.10 Package Process Flows
    18.11 Package/Bare Die Strategies
    18.12 Package Design
    18.13 Package Type/Technology Summary
    18.14 Review Questions
    18.15 References
    Glossary
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
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    32418_01.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    1. The Semiconductor Industry
    1.1 Overview
    1.2 Objectives
    1.3 Birth of an Industry
    1.4 The Solid-State Era
    1.5 Integrated Circuits (ICs)
    1.6 Process and Product Trends
    1.7 Industry Organization
    1.8 Stages of Manufacturing
    1.9 The Junction Transistor
    1.10 Five Decades of Industry Development
    1.11 The Nano Era
    1.12 Review Questions
    1.13 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
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    U
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    X
    Y
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    32418_02.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    2. Properties of Semiconductor Materials and Chemicals
    2.1 Overview
    2.2 Objectives
    2.3 Atomic Structure
    2.4 The Periodic Table of the Elements
    2.5 Electrical Conduction
    2.6 Dielectrics and Capacitors
    2.7 Intrinsic Semiconductors
    2.8 Doped Semiconductors
    2.9 Electron and Hole Conduction
    2.10 Semiconductor Production Materials
    2.11 Semiconducting Compounds
    2.12 Silicon Germanium
    2.13 Engineered Substrates
    2.14 Ferroelectric Materials
    2.15 Diamond Semiconductors
    2.16 Process Chemicals
    2.17 States of Matter
    2.18 Properties of Matter
    2.19 Pressure and Vacuum
    2.20 Acids, Alkalis, and Solvents
    2.21 Chemical Purity and Cleanliness
    2.22 Review Questions
    2.23 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
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    V
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    X
    Y
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    32418_03.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    3. Crystal Growth and Silicon Wafer Preparation
    3.1 Overview
    3.2 Objectives
    3.3 Introduction
    3.4 Semiconductor Silicon Preparation
    3.5 Crystalline Materials
    3.6 Crystal Orientation
    3.7 Crystal Growth
    3.8 Crystal and Wafer Quality
    3.9 Wafer Preparation
    3.10 Wafer Slicing
    3.11 Wafer Marking
    3.12 Rough Polish
    3.13 Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP)
    3.14 Backside Processing
    3.15 Double-Sided Polishing
    3.16 Edge Grinding and Polishing
    3.17 Wafer Evaluation
    3.18 Oxidation
    3.19 Packaging
    3.20 Engineered Wafers (Substrates)
    3.21 Review Questions
    3.22 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
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    Q
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    S
    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_04.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    4. Overview of Wafer Fabrication
    4.1 Overview
    4.2 Objectives
    4.3 Goal of Wafer Fabrication
    4.4 Wafer Terminology
    4.5 Basic Wafer-Fabrication Operations
    4.6 Example Fabrication Process
    4.7 Chip Terminology
    4.8 Wafer Sort
    4.9 Packaging
    4.10 Summary
    4.11 Review Questions
    4.12 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
    R
    S
    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
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    32418_05.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    5. Contamination Control
    5.1 Overview
    5.2 Objectives
    5.3 Introduction
    5.4 Contamination Sources
    5.5 Cleanroom Construction
    5.6 Cleanroom Materials and Supplies
    5.7 Cleanroom Maintenance
    5.8 Wafer Surface Cleaning
    5.9 Review Questions
    5.10 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
    R
    S
    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_06.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    6. Productivity and Process Yields
    6.1 Overview
    6.2 Objectives
    6.3 Yield Measurement Points
    6.4 Accumulative Wafer-Fabrication Yield
    6.5 Wafer-Fabrication Yield Limiters
    6.6 Assembly and Final Test Yields
    6.7 Overall Process Yields
    6.8 Review Questions
    6.9 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
    R
    S
    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_07.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    7. Oxidation
    7.1 Overview
    7.2 Objectives
    7.3 Silicon Dioxide Layer Uses
    7.4 Thermal Oxidation Mechanisms
    7.5 Oxidation Processes
    7.6 Postoxidation Evaluation
    7.7 Review Questions
    7.8 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
    R
    S
    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_08.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    8. The Ten-Step Patterning Process - Surface Preparation to Exposure
    8.1 Overview
    8.2 Objectives
    8.3 Introduction
    8.4 Overview of the Photomasking Process
    8.5 Ten-Step Process
    8.6 Basic Photoresist Chemistry
    8.7 Photoresist Performance Factors
    8.8 Physical Properties of Photoresists
    8.9 Photomasking Processes
    8.10 Surface Preparation
    8.11 Photoresist Application (Spinning)
    8.12 Soft Bake
    8.13 Alignment and Exposure
    8.14 Advanced Lithography
    8.15 Review Questions
    8.16 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
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    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_09.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    9. The Ten-Step Patterning Process - Developing to Final Inspection
    9.1 Overview
    9.2 Objectives
    9.3 Hard Bake
    9.4 Integrated Image Processing
    9.5 Etch
    9.6 Wet Etching
    9.7 Dry Etch
    9.8 Resist Stripping
    9.9 Final Inspection
    9.10 Mask Making
    9.11 Summary
    9.12 Review Questions
    9.13 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
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    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_10.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    10. Advanced Photolithography Processes
    10.1 Overview
    10.2 Objectives
    10.3 Issues of VLSI/ULSI Patterning
    10.4 Other Exposure Issues
    10.5 Surface Problems
    10.6 Antireflective Coatings
    10.7 Photoresist Process Advances
    10.8 Improving Etch Definition
    10.9 Self-Aligned Structures
    10.10 Etch Profile Control
    10.11 Review Questions
    10.12 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
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    T
    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_11.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    11. Doping
    11.1 Overview
    11.2 Objectives
    11.3 Introduction
    11.4 Formation of a Doped Region by Diffusion
    11.5 Formation of a Doped Region and Junction by Diffusion
    11.6 Diffusion Process Steps
    11.7 Deposition
    11.8 Drive-in Oxidation
    11.9 Introduction to Ion Implantation
    11.10 Concept of Ion Implantation
    11.11 Ion Implantation System
    11.12 Dopant Concentration in Implanted Regions
    11.13 Evaluation of Implanted Layers
    11.14 Uses of Ion Implantation
    11.15 The Future of Doping
    11.16 Review Questions
    11.17 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
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    32418_12.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    12. Layer Deposition
    12.1 Overview
    12.2 Objectives
    12.3 Introduction
    12.4 Chemical Vapor Deposition Basics
    12.5 CVD Process Steps
    12.6 CVD System Types
    12.7 Atmospheric-Pressure CVD Systems
    12.8 Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD)
    12.9 Atomic Layer Deposition (ALD)
    12.10 Vapor Phase Epitaxy (VPE)
    12.11 Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE)
    12.12 Metalorganic CVD (MOCVD)
    12.13 Deposited Films
    12.14 Deposited Semiconductors
    12.15 Epitaxial Silicon
    12.16 Polysilicon and Amorphous Silicon Deposition
    12.17 SOS and SOI
    12.18 Gallium Arsenide on Silicon
    12.19 Insulators and Dielectrics
    12.20 Conductors
    12.21 Review Questions
    12.22 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
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    U
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    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_13.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    13. Metallization
    13.1 Overview
    13.2 Objectives
    13.3 Introduction
    13.4 Conductors - Single-Level Metal
    13.5 Conductors - Multilevel Metal Schemes
    13.6 Conductors
    13.7 Electrochemical Plating (ECP)
    13.8 Chemical Mechanical Processing
    13.9 Metal Film Uses
    13.10 Deposition Methods
    13.11 Vacuum Pumps
    13.12 Summary
    13.13 Review Questions
    13.14 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
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    S
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    U
    V
    W
    X
    Y
    Z
    32418_14.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    14. Process and Device Evaluation
    14.1 Overview
    14.2 Objectives
    14.3 Introduction
    14.4 Wafer Electrical Measurements
    14.5 Process and Device Evaluation
    14.6 Physical Measurement Methods
    14.7 Layer Thickness Measurements
    14.8 Junction Depth
    14.9 Contamination and Defect Detection
    14.10 General Surface Characterization
    14.11 Contamination Identification
    14.12 Device Electrical Measurements
    14.13 Review Questions
    14.14 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
    L
    M
    N
    O
    P
    Q
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    S
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    U
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    X
    Y
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    32418_15.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    15. The Business of Wafer Fabrication
    15.1 Overview
    15.2 Objectives
    15.3 Wafer Fabrication Costs
    15.4 Equipment
    15.5 Automation
    15.6 Factory-Level Automation
    15.7 Equipment Standards
    15.8 Statistical Process Control (SPC)
    15.9 Inventory Control
    15.10 Quality Control and Certification - ISO 9000
    15.11 Line Organization
    15.12 Review Questions
    15.13 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
    J
    K
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    N
    O
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    32418_16.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    16. Introduction to Devices and Integrated Circuit Formation
    16.1 Overview
    16.2 Objectives
    16.3 Semiconductor-Device Formation
    16.4 Alternative (Scaled) Transistor Designs
    16.5 Integrated-Circuit Formation
    16.6 Bi-MOS
    16.7 Superconductors
    16.8 Review Questions
    16.9 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
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    I
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    32418_17.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    17. Introduction to Integrated Circuits
    17.1 Overview
    17.2 Objectives
    17.3 Introduction
    17.4 Circuit Basics
    17.5 Integrated Circuit Types
    17.6 The Next Generation
    17.7 Review Questions
    17.8 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
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    32418_18.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    18. Packaging
    18.1 Overview
    18.2 Objectives
    18.3 Introduction
    18.4 Chip Characteristics
    18.5 Package Functions and Design
    18.6 Overview of Packaging Operations
    18.7 Packaging Processes
    18.8 Alternative Process
    18.9 Transfer to Packaging Area
    18.10 Package Process Flows
    18.11 Package/Bare Die Strategies
    18.12 Package Design
    18.13 Package Type/Technology Summary
    18.14 Review Questions
    18.15 References
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
    G
    H
    I
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    32418_glo.pdf
    Front Matter
    Table of Contents
    Glossary
    Index
    A
    B
    C
    D
    E
    F
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    Microchip Fabrication A Practical Guide to Semiconductor Processing Peter Van Zant Fifth Edition McGraw-Hill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto iii
    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Van Zant, Peter. Microchip fabrication / Peter Van Zant.—5th ed. p. cm. Includes index. ISBN 0-07-143241-8 1. Semiconductors—Design and construction. 2. Integrated circuits—Design and construction. I. Title. TK7871.85.V36 621.3815'2—dc22 2004 2004040287 Copyright © 2004, 2000, 1997, 1984 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be repro- duced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a data base or re- trieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 DOC/DOC 0 1 0 9 8 7 6 5 4 ISBN 0-07-143241-8 The sponsoring editor for this book was Stephen S. Chapman and the production supervisor was Pamela Pelton. It was set in Century Schoolbook by J. K. Eckert & Company, Inc. Printed and bound by R. R. Donnelley. McGraw-Hill books are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. For more informa- tion, please write to the Director of Special Sales, McGraw-Hill Professional, Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2298. Or contact your local bookstore. This book is printed on recycles, acid-free paper containing a minimum of 50% re- cycled, de-inked fiber. Information contained in this work has been obtained by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGraw-Hill”) from sources believed to be reliable. However, neither McGraw-Hill nor its authors guarantee the accuracy or completeness of any information published herein and neither McGraw- Hill nor its authors shall be responsible for any errors, omissions, or dam- ages arising out of use of this information. This work is published with the understanding that McGraw-Hill and its authors are supplying information but are not attempting to render engineering or other professional services. If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. iv
    This edition is dedicated to two exceptional women, Marilyn (Van Zant) O’Connor and Anne Miller. Marilyn is my lovely and loving sister. She is also my good friend, enthusiastic supporter, and a wise confidant. Thanks, sis. For over twenty years Anne has been a collaborator, business partner, and friend. Her wise business counsel and contributions to this text are greatly appreciated. v
    Preface to the Fifth Edition Despite recessions, the microchip industry continues its evolutionary march to the physical limits of silicon-based ICs. Fortunately, the end seems always just over the hill, and the industry keeps chugging along. Unfortunately, keeping a textbook current with the advances in microchip fabrication means frequent updates. Hence this fifth edi- tion. This edition follows the same chapter sequence as the previous edi- tions. Hopefully, this will assist instructors in upgrading their course curriculums. Fortunately, the basics of semiconductor device operation and wafer processing remain the same and will be found in this edi- tion. My thanks go to Steve Chapman, my editor at McGraw-Hill. His guidance and patience with my writing schedule are appreciated. Many thanks to Anne Miller and Michael Heynes of Semiconductor Services for their consultation and input. Alex Braun, of Semiconduc- tor International, and Nikki Wood, of Future Fab International, were most helpful with securing permission to reproduce material from their fine publications. Jeff Eckert, of J. K. Eckert & Co., did a fine job on organizing the over 600 figures and editing the manuscript. Mark Hall, Mark Hall Design, and David Wellner did yeoman’s work trans- forming my hand drawings into understandable illustrations. Last, but not least, thanks to my wife Mary Dewitt for enduring my 5:30 A.M. writing sessions and her unending support. xiii
    About the Author Peter Van Zant is an internationally known semiconductor profes- sional with an extensive background in process engineering, training, consulting, and writing. Principal of Peter Van Zant Associates, a firm that supplies writing, training, and consulting services to business and industry, he is the author of Semiconductor Technology Glossary, Third Edition; Integrated Circuits Text; Safety First Manual; and Chip Packaging Manual. His books and training materials are used by chip manufacturers, industry suppliers, colleges, and universities. Peter Van Zant Associates’ customers include Intel, National Semiconductor, Applied Materials, Air Products and Chemicals, SCP Global Inc., and a number of educational institutions. Mr. Van Zant is also the elected District 1 Supervisor in his home county of Nevada in California. xiv
    Contents Preface xiii Chapter 1. The Semiconductor Industry Overview Objectives Birth of an Industry The Solid-State Era Integrated Circuits (ICs) Process and Product Trends Industry Organization Stages of Manufacturing The Junction Transistor Five Decades of Industry Development The Nano Era Review Questions References Chapter 2. Properties of Semiconductor Materials and Chemicals Overview Objectives Atomic Structure The Periodic Table of the Elements Electrical Conduction Dielectrics and Capacitors Intrinsic Semiconductors Doped Semiconductors Electron and Hole Conduction Semiconductor Production Materials Semiconducting Compounds Silicon Germanium Engineered Substrates Ferroelectric Materials Diamond Semiconductors Process Chemicals States of Matter 1 1 1 1 3 4 5 13 14 17 19 21 23 24 25 25 25 26 27 29 30 31 32 33 37 37 39 39 40 40 40 42 vii
    viii Contents Properties of Matter Pressure and Vacuum Acids, Alkalis, and Solvents Chemical Purity and Cleanliness Review Questions References Chapter 3. Crystal Growth and Silicon Wafer Preparation Overview Objectives Introduction Semiconductor Silicon Preparation Crystalline Materials Crystal Orientation Crystal Growth Crystal and Wafer Quality Wafer Preparation Wafer Slicing Wafer Marking Rough Polish Chemical Mechanical Polishing (CMP) Backside Processing Double-Sided Polishing Edge Grinding and Polishing Wafer Evaluation Oxidation Packaging Engineered Wafers (Substrates) Review Questions References Chapter 4. Overview of Wafer Fabrication Overview Objectives Goal of Wafer Fabrication Wafer Terminology Basic Wafer-Fabrication Operations Example Fabrication Process Chip Terminology Wafer Sort Packaging Summary Review Questions References Chapter 5. Contamination Control Overview Objectives Introduction Contamination Sources Cleanroom Construction Cleanroom Materials and Supplies 43 45 46 48 48 49 51 51 51 52 52 53 55 56 59 62 64 65 65 67 67 68 68 68 69 69 69 69 70 71 71 71 72 72 73 83 87 87 89 89 90 90 91 91 91 92 96 106 119
    Contents ix Cleanroom Maintenance Wafer Surface Cleaning Review Questions References Chapter 6. Productivity and Process Yields Overview Objectives Yield Measurement Points Accumulative Wafer-Fabrication Yield Wafer-Fabrication Yield Limiters Assembly and Final Test Yields Overall Process Yields Review Questions References Chapter 7. Oxidation Overview Objectives Silicon Dioxide Layer Uses Thermal Oxidation Mechanisms Oxidation Processes Postoxidation Evaluation Review Questions References Chapter 8. The Ten-Step Patterning Process—Surface Preparation to Exposure Overview Objectives Introduction Overview of the Photomasking Process Ten-Step Process Basic Photoresist Chemistry Photoresist Performance Factors Physical Properties of Photoresists Photomasking Processes Surface Preparation Photoresist Application (Spinning) Soft Bake Alignment and Exposure Advanced Lithography Review Questions References Chapter 9. The Ten-Step Patterning Process—Developing to Final Inspection Overview Objectives Hard Bake Integrated Image Processing 119 120 135 136 139 139 139 140 140 142 155 155 157 157 159 159 159 160 163 191 193 195 195 197 197 197 198 199 201 202 207 214 217 218 221 227 231 243 243 244 245 245 245 252 254
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