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    OPTICAL IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPY
    OPTICAL IMAGING AND SPECTROSCOPY DAVID J. BRADY Duke University, Durham, North Carolina
    Copyright # 2009 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved. Co-published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., and The Optical Society of America No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax 978-750-4470, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, 201-748-6011, fax 201-748-6008, or online at http://www.wiley.com/go/permission. Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages. For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer Care Department within the United States at 877-762-2974, outside the United States at 317-572-3993 or fax 317-572-4002. Wiley also publishes its books in variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic format. For more information about Wiley products, visit our web site at www.wiley.com. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Brady, David Jones, 1961- Optical imaging and spectroscopy / David Jones Brady. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-470-04823-8 (cloth) 1. Optical spectroscopy. 2. I. Title. QC454.O66B73 2008 621.36—dc22 Imaging systems. 3. Image processing. 4. Optical instruments 2008036200 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
    To the Taxpayers of the United States of America
    CONTENTS Preface Acknowledgments Acronyms 1 Past, Present, and Future 1.1 Three Revolutions / 1 1.2 Computational Imaging / 3 1.3 Overview / 6 1.4 The Fourth Revolution / 8 Problems / 9 2 Geometric Imaging Imaging Systems / 28 2.1 Visibility / 11 2.2 Optical Elements / 14 2.3 Focal Imaging / 22 2.4 2.5 Pinhole and Coded Aperture Imaging / 31 2.6 Projection Tomography / 41 2.7 Reference Structure Tomography / 47 Problems / 50 3 Analysis 3.1 Analytical Tools / 55 3.2 Fields and Transformations / 56 xiii xv xvii 1 11 55 vii
    viii CONTENTS 3.3 Fourier Analysis / 59 3.4 Transfer Functions and Filters / 64 3.5 The Fresnel Transformation / 67 3.6 The Whittaker–Shannon Sampling Theorem / 72 3.7 Discrete Analysis of Linear Transformations / 75 3.8 Multiscale Sampling / 79 3.9 B-Splines / 89 3.10 Wavelets / 96 Problems / 100 4 Wave Imaging 4.1 Waves and Fields / 103 4.2 Wave Model for Optical Fields / 104 4.3 Wave Propagation / 106 4.4 Diffraction / 109 4.5 Wave Analysis of Optical Elements / 115 4.6 Wave Propagation Through Thin Lenses / 121 4.7 Fourier Analysis of Wave Imaging / 124 4.8 Holography / 130 Problems / 141 5 Detection 5.1 The Optoelectronic Interface / 147 5.2 Quantum Mechanics of Optical Detection / 148 5.3 Optoelectronic Detectors / 153 5.3.1 Photoconductive Detectors / 153 5.3.2 Photodiodes / 159 5.4 Physical Characteristics of Optical Detectors / 162 5.5 Noise / 165 5.6 Charge-Coupled Devices / 170 5.7 Active Pixel Sensors / 176 5.8 Problems / 183 Infrared Focal Plane Arrays / 178 103 147 6 Coherence Imaging 187 6.1 Coherence and Spectral Fields / 187 6.2 Coherence Propagation / 190 6.3 Measuring Coherence / 198
    CONTENTS ix 6.3.1 Measuring Temporal Coherence / 198 6.3.2 Spatial Interferometry / 201 6.3.3 Rotational Shear Interferometry / 204 6.3.4 Focal Interferometry / 209 6.4 Fourier Analysis of Coherence Imaging / 216 6.4.1 Planar Objects / 217 6.4.2 3D Objects / 219 6.4.3 The Defocus Transfer Function / 224 6.5 Optical Coherence Tomography / 227 6.6 Modal Analysis / 231 6.6.1 Modes and Fields / 231 6.6.2 Modes and Coherence Functions / 234 6.6.3 Modal Transformations / 236 6.6.4 Modes and Measurement / 243 6.7 Radiometry / 245 6.7.1 Generalized Radiance / 245 6.7.2 The Constant Radiance Theorem / 247 Problems / 248 7 Sampling 253 Image Plane Sampling on Electronic Detector Arrays / 255 7.1 Samples and Pixels / 253 7.2 7.3 Color Imaging / 268 7.4 Practical Sampling Models / 272 7.5 Generalized Sampling / 276 7.5.1 Sampling Strategies and Spaces / 277 7.5.2 Linear Inference / 282 7.5.3 Nonlinear Inference and Group Testing / 284 7.5.4 Compressed Sensing / 288 Problems / 294 8 Coding and Inverse Problems 299 8.1 Coding Taxonomy / 299 8.2 Pixel Coding / 304 8.2.1 Linear Estimators / 305 8.2.2 Hadamard Codes / 306
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