论文研究 - 纳米生物技术在农业领域：概述和新应用.pdf

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Nanobiotechnology in Agricultural Sector: Overview and Novel Applications

Abstract

Keywords

1. Introduction

History

2. Applications in Agriculture

2.1. Nanofertilizers

2.2. Nanopesticides

2.2.1. Management of Insect Pest

2.2.2. Antifungal Properties of Nanomaterials

2.3. Nanosensors

2.4. Nanobiosensors

2.5. Disinfectants

2.6. Genetic Material Delivery

2.7. Bar Coding

2.8. Nanolaminates

2.9. Nanoremediation

3. Impact in Agriculture: Pros and Cons

4. Future Perspectives

5. Conclusions

Conflicts of Interest

References

Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology, 2019, 10, 120-141 http://www.scirp.org/journal/jbnb ISSN Online: 2158-7043 ISSN Print: 2158-7027 Nanobiotechnology in Agricultural Sector: Overview and Novel Applications Katherine Alvarado1, Mónica Bolaños1, Carmen Camacho1, Elías Quesada1, José Vega-Baudrit1,2 1Chemistry Department, National University of Costa Rica, Heredia, Costa Rica 2National Nanotechnology Laboratory LANOTEC-CeNAT-CONARE, San José, Costa Rica How to cite this paper: Alvarado, K., Bolaños, M., Camacho, C., Quesada, E. and Vega-Baudrit, J. (2019) Nanobiotechnology in Agricultural Sector: Overview and Novel Applications. Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology, 10, 120-141. https://doi.org/10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007 Received: November 27, 2018 Accepted: April 23, 2019 Published: April 26, 2019 Copyright © 2019 by author(s) and Scientific Research Publishing Inc. This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution International License (CC BY 4.0). http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Open Access Abstract The agricultural sector has many problems achieving the desired yield in products because of pathogens, viruses, pesticides, herbicides, temperature, soil moisture, among others. Nanotechnology, along with other sciences, has emerged in industry and society due to the interest in solving problems such as those mentioned above, in order to serve the needs of the world popula- tion. The present review discusses the principal topics about Nanobiotech- nology, such as generalities, applications, aspects that can be improved and perspectives, beside its influence in the agriculture industry. Keywords Component, Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, Agriculture, Nanobiotechnology 1. Introduction Nanotechnology is present in almost all areas of our daily life and is recognized by the European Commission as one of the six “Key Enabling Technologies” that contribute to sustainable competitiveness and growth in many areas of industrial application [1]. There are a variety of concepts about nanotechnology in the li- terature, however, it can be defined as a novel, innovative and interdisciplinary science field that involves the designing, development and application of mate- rials and devices at molecular level in nanometric scale [2]. In other words, it is a field of applied science and technology which deals/involves in manipulating matter and its atoms and molecules with the purpose of fabricating materials, devices and systems with new characteristics that can improve their applications [3]. The principle of Nanotechnology is to work atom by atom, with the purpose of obtaining structures with new molecular organization and through this, to 120 Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology DOI: 10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007 Apr. 26, 2019

K. Alvarado et al. exploit these properties and develop innovative devices [4]. On the other hand, biotechnology uses the techniques of biology in order to manipulate molecular, genetic and cellular processes to develop products and services and it can be used in diverse fields from medicine to food and agricul- ture [5]. Having said that, the Nanobiotechnology is the integration of nanotechnolo- gy, biotechnology and also chemical and physical processing, material science and system engineering with the aim of obtaining new products previously modified at nanoscale that may have improved conditions with respect to the conventional materials [6]. Due to the new chemical, physical and biological properties of nanomaterials and nanoparticles, they have been rapidly exploited in many areas such as agri- culture, food, medicine, pharmacy, electronics, material science and energy sec- tors among others [2] [6]. For many countries, agriculture sector is very important for their economy, including more than 60% of the population which depends upon agriculture to earn their livelihood directly or indirectly [1]. Agriculture is one of the most important and stable sector because it produces and provides raw materials, mainly for food and feed industries. The limit of natural resources (production land, water, soil), the growth of the population in the world, the increasing global food security and the climate change, claim the agricultural development to be economically further, viable, environmentally and efficiently [2] [5]. For the agriculture, the change in properties is thanks to the possibility to manipulate, change and reduce the atomic and molecular size, what allows to change the interactions between molecules and hence, have mate- rials with new characteristics. The new properties and possibilities of nanotech- nology in this area are high reactivity, sensitivity, enhanced bioavailability and bioactivity, adherence effects and different surface effects [7]. Now, after years of green revolution and decline in the agricultural products ratio to world population growth, it is obvious the necessity of employing new technologies in the agriculture industry. Modern technologies such as bio and nanotechnologies can play an important role in increasing the annual produc- tion and improving the quality of food produced by farmers. Many believe that modern technologies will secure growing world food needs as well as deliver a huge range of environmental, health and economic advantages [3]. The need of new science and technology interventions have allowed to revolu- tionize the agricultural industry with novel tools for the molecular management of diseases, rapid disease detection, enhancing the ability of plants to absorb nu- trients, improving agricultural productivity and efficiency with lower cost and less waste, among others [4] [8]. To conclude, the objective of this investigation is to elaborate a review about nanotechnology in the agriculture sector, learn about its generalities, important applications and aspects that can be improved. 121 Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology DOI: 10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007

K. Alvarado et al. DOI: 10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007 History The concept of “Nanoscience” has been attributed to Laureate Richard Feynman in 1959 and the term “Nanotechnology” was used for the first time in 1974 by Norio Taniguchi of the Tokyo Science University [7]. After that, the develop- ment of nanotechnologies has been attributed to two inventions that have revo- lutionized imaging and manipulation of nanoscale objects: The Scanning Tunneling Microscope (STM) invented in 1981 and the Atomic Force Micro- scope (AFM) in 1986. These instruments practically opened the door for scien- tists to the “nanoworld” and since these discoveries the studies in nanotechnol- ogy don’t cease to increase in the innovations in electronics and also in the use of nanoparticles in many areas [9]. On the other hand, the studies about nanotechnology in agriculture started growing for industrial applications nearly half a century ago, nevertheless, the impulse to other scientists for its use is attributed to recently reports published, which are focused on identifying the research areas that should be found and al- so on set the agenda for nanotechnology research in agricultural applications, which became the principal guiding force for many nations that have agriculture as primary occupation of the population [10]. 2. Applications in Agriculture Nowadays, the world’s population is growing very rapidly, and it is expected to reach 8.5 billion by 2030 [11], which means that the demand for food, natural resources like water, land to establish cities and cultivate, will also increase [12]. In the same matter, the climate change due to the pollution has caused a very negative impact on the crop production [12]. In that sense, the food industry needs to come up with quick and novel alternatives in order to fulfill the heavy demand for food and the shortage of land and water. Currently, some of the solutions to cope with those problems have been the use of fertilizers, pesticides and genetically modified organisms (GMO) [13]. Nevertheless, the indiscriminate use of chemical compounds to increase the crop production or efficiency, has caused serious issues like heavy soil, air and water contamination, human and animal diseases and destabilization of the ecosys- tems [12] [14]. For example, related to the overuse of pesticides, many of the pests that affect the crops have developed resistance, analogous to the bacterial antibiotic resistance, which causes that the farmers tend to use more quantity and stronger pesticides, some of them being quite toxic [15]. With that being said, bio and nanotechnology now comes into play, as inno- vative technologies that may have the solutions to many of the issues that the humans and agricultural industry have been facing [1] [6] [13]. As an illustra- tion, Table 1 shows some of the main materials used in agriculture that have been developed using nanometric technologies [15] [16] [17]. 2.1. Nanofertilizers Like mentioned above, fertilizers are chemical substances, like urea, ammonium 122 Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology

Table 1. Nano materials used nowadays in agriculture [15] [16] [17]. Material Purpose K. Alvarado et al. Magnetic carbon coated nanoparticles Polyhydroxybutyte-co-hydroxyvalerate microspheres with atrazine (about 13 nm) Inorganic Zn-Al layered double hyroxide (ZAL) as release agent Controlled released herbicide and Smart agrochemical delivery system used in several plants such as tomato, sunflower and pea Nano controlled release system of 2-4-dichlorophenoxyacetate used as herbicides Porous hollow silica nanoparticles Nano controlled release system of wáter soluble pesticide CNT conjugated with INF24 oligonucleotides Silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) Reduce rust disease and control pathogens Amphotericin B nanodisks Treatment of fungal pathogens (proved in vitro) Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) Delivery of DNA during transformation of plant cells Plant growth promoting rhizobacteria salts, phosphates, among others, used to increase the crop production, as they facilitate the access to nutrients required for growing [13] [15]. However, in or- der to achieve the enormous required amount of food, farmers have resorted to the use of conventional fertilizers at high rates and long periods of time, which is the main anthropogenic factor that has caused the eutrophication of coastal and freshwater ecosystems [18]. In that way, different approaches have been developed to deal with this issue. One of them is the creation of nanofertilizers, that are either nanomaterials that can supply nutrients to the plant, or those that act as enhancers of the traditional fertilizers, but do not directly provide the nutrients [18]. For example, nanopar- ticles made out of hydroxyapatite, TiO2, SiO2, or even carbon nanotubes [13]. In regards of the uptake mechanism by the plants, there are two main me- chanisms [18]. The first consists on the nanoparticle entering directly into the plant cells through pores on the cell wall, in this case, the size of the nanoparticle needs to be smaller than the pore size (5 to 20 nm) [18]. The seconds involves the dissolution of the nanoparticles, which are absorbed through the roots of the plant and release the nutrients as soluble ions [18]. Also, the advantage of using nanoparticles is that the dissolution of these in water or soil is higher compared to the conventional fertilizers, because of its smaller particle size and higher spe- cific surface area [18]. Another strategy has been the development of biofertilizers, in which are used beneficial microorganisms that are able to convert organic matter into com- pounds that are nutritional for the plant and, at the same time, maintain the soil fertility and its natural habitat [15]. Nevertheless, this approach has a few draw- backs, like short shelf life, lack of suitable carrier materials, high temperature and desiccation sensitivity [15]. Therefore, in order to overcome those issues, 123 Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology DOI: 10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007

K. Alvarado et al. DOI: 10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007 polymeric nanoparticles for coating to resist desiccation, might be a great appli- cation [15]. For example, scientists have investigated the interaction between gold nanoparticles (GNPs) and plant growth promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) [17]. The results showed a significant increase on growth for some of the strains tested, like P. fluorescens, P. elgii and B. subtilis, hence, GNPs have great poten- tial as nano-biofertilizers [17]. 2.2. Nanopesticides Some materials contain elements in the nanometer size that claims novel prop- erties associated with these small size, in this way, nanopesticides are defined as any formulation that includes this type of modified materials to generate more efficient products. Since materials vary their properties depending on their size, there is a wide range of nanopesticides that cannot be considered as a single cat- egory. For example, some of them are made of organic ingredients like polymers and, in the other hand, some nanopesticides may have inorganic ingredients like metal oxides. It should be noted that the nanomaterials were introduced into pesticides in various forms (particles and micelles); and this nanometric mate- rials are introduced into pesticides to release the active ingredient more slowly and in a selectively way to increase the solubility of the poorly soluble active in- gredient o thereby protect the ingredient against premature degradation [19]. In these days, resist environmental conditions such as sun, heat, rain, to be transported through the target and penetrate efficiently the organism (fungus, insect, etc) or to resist defense of the pest/pathogen, are some of the more im- portant characteristics of an ideal pesticide. Even so, pesticides do not have such good chemical characteristics, that is why, now nanomaterials are implemented in this products. Likewise, it has been observed that in economic terms, intro- ducing nanoparticules into pesticides provide monetary, social and environ- mental benefits by formulating more controlled modes of action. To achieve this, nanomaterials have potential for developing safer chemical pesticide for- mulations for applications in the field. Another point to take into account is that nanotechnology has been incorpo- rated into pesticides through the use of nanosuspensions, nanoparticles and po- lymeric nanoparticles. Nowadays, these forms of introduction into the nanopes- ticides have been tested to observe their efficiency and effectiveness [15]. Among the main nanomaterials used to improve the properties of pesticides are found the iron oxide nanoparticles and gold nanoparticles, they are mostly used because their easily way to be synthesized. According to the size, the phar- macokinetic parameters can be altered shape and functionalization of the surface of the nanomaterials [20]. That is why, nanotechnology can take an important part in the development of sustainable agriculture, since this technology can control the delivery of nutrients and monitoring the water quality used in this field [5]. As a consequence, it is important to encourage the use and spread of nanomaterials in this aspect. 124 Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology

K. Alvarado et al. Nanopores open up opportunities for agriculture by the improvement of new productivity using research in nanotechnology. For example, Zeolites are nano- capsules of water, herbicides or fertilizers used for efficient dosing and slow re- lease of the vector for pest management. The manipulation of nanoparticles makes possible the arrangement of atoms, modifying shapes, sizes and functions. This allows the manufacture of advanced objects such as Zeolites for the con- trolled release of active agents such as pesticides [21]. Reducing waste and labor costs are some of the benefits that nanotechnology promises by streamlining agricultural management. Therefore, nanopesticides increased average crop yield by 20%, sunflower by 50%; rice by 35% and cu- cumber by 25%. Nowadays, some researches shows that nano-iron oxide pesti- cides increased rice yields by 25% and soybean yields increased 48% [22]. 2.2.1. Management of Insect Pest Nanoscale science and engineering have an important role in the creation of agricultural system for the generation of safer food under more controlled pro- duction. Although commercial advances and technological impacts are limited due to the relative novelty of the use of nanotechnology in agriculture and food systems, some encouraging results have been obtained. From the perspective of food safety, nanotechnology has a lot to offer, such as the control of insect pests [23]. Insects are one of the most known animal species around the world. They are found in all types of environment. Insects fed on all kinds of plants including crop plants, forest trees, medicinal plants and weeds. They also infest the food and other stored products in warehouses, bins, storage structures and packages causing huge amount of loss to the stored food and also deterioration of food quality [6]. The effectiveness of metal nanoparticles against plants pathogens, insects and pests were proven in previous studies. Hence, nanoparticles can be used in the preparation of new formulations like pesticides, insecticides and insect repellants [6] [15]. 2.2.2. Antifungal Properties of Nanomaterials The efficiency of nanoparticles on the control of the growth of some bacteria and fungi on plants has been proven. New Silver nanoparticles (SNPs) have been studied as pesticides for fungal and bacterial control; this is because by having such a small size they are able to penetrate the wall and cell membrane in large scale in biological processes. The antibacterial activity of silver ions has been well established. These SNPs have fungistatic, bacteriostatic and plasmonic properties that are eco-friendly inhibitors against plant-pathogens compared with synthetic fungicides [24]. SNPs can attack membranes and structures denaturing cell. This nanomaterial disrupts transport systems, such as ion efflux, causing a rapid ac- cumulation of silver ions, interrupting cellular processes such as respiration and metabolism by reacting with the molecules [24] [25]. 125 Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology DOI: 10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007

K. Alvarado et al. DOI: 10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007 In the same way, in terms of nanotechnology, studies have been published on copper nanoparticles and copper oxide nanoparticles for the phytopathological and phytosanitary application [26]. Another nanoparticle used to control fungal pathogens is the chitosan, a natural compound that has several applications in biology, because of its capacity of being biodegradable, safe and non-toxic, envi- ronmentally friendly and low-cost production. Some investigations found that chitosan has antifungal properties because the interaction between amino groups of chitosan and negative charges of the macromolecules at the outside of the fungal cell wall [27]. 2.3. Nanosensors Agricultural production continues to be constrained by biotic and abiotic fac- tors. For instance, insect pests, diseases and weeds cause considerable damage to agricultural production [6]. Regarding this, Nanotechnology has allowed the use of nanosensors, which are sophisticated instruments that can respond to physi- cal, chemical or biological aspects and transfer that response into a signal that can be used by humans, allowing to detect many factors due to drought, temper- ature, insect or pathogen pressure, or lack of nutrients [5]. Many years ago the people used traditional techniques such as gas or liquid chromatography and mass spectroscopy instead of nanosensors, however, these devices have the ad- vantages of being small, portable, sensitive with real-time monitoring, precise, quantitative, reliable, accurate, reproducible, robust and stable. Because of that, an alternative to analytical methods could not only improve the efficiency in the in- vestigations but also reduce the cost associated with the traditional methods; the unique and different characteristics of nanomaterials, such as size/shape-dependent optical property, easy and fast turning in surface properties and catalytic func- tions are very useful for the signal generation and signal amplification [28] [29]. Moreover, the possibility of on-site monitoring allow farmers to closely monitor environmental conditions for plant growth and crop protection and also can contribute to increase the productivity and decreased the use of agrochemicals such as antibiotics, pesticides and nutrients by early intervention; besides that, people can utilize inputs more efficiently by indicating the nutrient or water sta- tus of crop plants over fine spatial and temporal scales and through this, apply nutrients, water, or crop protection (insecticide, fungicide or herbicide) only where and when necessary [5] [15]. These smart sensors in the agriculture sector are considered a powerful tool for track detect and control animal and plant pathogen, mainly because the de- vices help in the detection of chemical contaminants, virus and bacteria in agri- cultural systems, nutrient content and plant stress [20]. Some specific applications of these sensors in agriculture are the MEMS (Mi- cro Electro Mechanical Systems) that through microelectronic circuits are capa- ble of sensing and monitoring temperature and moisture in soil, to diagnose oil disease (caused by infecting soil microorganisms, such as viruses, bacteria and 126 Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology

K. Alvarado et al. fungi) via the quantitative measurement of differential oxygen consumption in the respiration of good microbes and bad microbes in the soil. Also biosensors are developed, using photosystem II, known to bind several groups of herbicides and chemicals, among others [7]. Through the development of new devices, farmers and population will be be- nefited in aspects such as economic gain, reduced environmental pollution and lower labor costs [30]. 2.4. Nanobiosensors Physical and chemical new properties of nanoscale materials are also exploitable in the development of biosensors. Nanomaterials are used in biosensors with the purpose of improve their sensitivity and efficiency through new signal transduc- tion technologies [5]. Nanosensors with immobilized bioreceptor which is selec- tive for target analyte molecules are called nanobiosensors. In other words, this is a modified version of a biosensor that incorporates a biological derived sensi- tized element linked to a physical-chemical transducer. This device integrates a biological element with an electronic component to yield a measurable signal and in the other hand, the biological recognition is through the transducer process [5] [31]. The conventional nanobiosensors have three principal components (Figure 1). The probe or biologically sensitized elements such as enzymes, antibodies, DOI: 10.4236/jbnb.2019.102007 Figure 1. Principle of a nanobiosensor [31]. 127 Journal of Biomaterials and Nanobiotechnology

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