Python标准库查询手册（最新Python 3.3）.pdf

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Introduction

Built-in Functions

Built-in Constants

Constants added by the site module

Built-in Types

Truth Value Testing

Boolean Operations — and, or, not

Comparisons

Numeric Types — int, float, complex

Iterator Types

Sequence Types — list, tuple, range

Text Sequence Type — str

Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview

Set Types — set, frozenset

Mapping Types — dict

Context Manager Types

Other Built-in Types

Special Attributes

Built-in Exceptions

Base classes

Concrete exceptions

Warnings

Exception hierarchy

Text Processing Services

string — Common string operations

re — Regular expression operations

difflib — Helpers for computing deltas

textwrap — Text wrapping and filling

unicodedata — Unicode Database

stringprep — Internet String Preparation

readline — GNU readline interface

rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline

Binary Data Services

struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data

codecs — Codec registry and base classes

Data Types

datetime — Basic date and time types

calendar — General calendar-related functions

collections — Container datatypes

collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers

heapq — Heap queue algorithm

bisect — Array bisection algorithm

array — Efficient arrays of numeric values

weakref — Weak references

types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types

copy — Shallow and deep copy operations

pprint — Data pretty printer

reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation

enum — Support for enumerations

Numeric and Mathematical Modules

numbers — Numeric abstract base classes

math — Mathematical functions

cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers

decimal — Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic

fractions — Rational numbers

random — Generate pseudo-random numbers

statistics — Mathematical statistics functions

Functional Programming Modules

itertools — Functions creating iterators for efficient looping

functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects

operator — Standard operators as functions

File and Directory Access

pathlib — Object-oriented filesystem paths

os.path — Common pathname manipulations

fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams

stat — Interpreting stat() results

filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons

tempfile — Generate temporary files and directories

glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion

fnmatch — Unix filename pattern matching

linecache — Random access to text lines

shutil — High-level file operations

macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions

Data Persistence

pickle — Python object serialization

copyreg — Register pickle support functions

shelve — Python object persistence

marshal — Internal Python object serialization

dbm — Interfaces to Unix ``databases''

sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases

Data Compression and Archiving

zlib — Compression compatible with gzip

gzip — Support for gzip files

bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression

lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm

zipfile — Work with ZIP archives

tarfile — Read and write tar archive files

File Formats

csv — CSV File Reading and Writing

configparser — Configuration file parser

netrc — netrc file processing

xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data

plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist files

Cryptographic Services

hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests

hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication

Generic Operating System Services

os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces

io — Core tools for working with streams

time — Time access and conversions

argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands

optparse — Parser for command line options

getopt — C-style parser for command line options

logging — Logging facility for Python

logging.config — Logging configuration

logging.handlers — Logging handlers

getpass — Portable password input

curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays

curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs

curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters

curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses

platform — Access to underlying platform's identifying data

errno — Standard errno system symbols

ctypes — A foreign function library for Python

Concurrent Execution

threading — Thread-based parallelism

multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism

The concurrent package

concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks

subprocess — Subprocess management

sched — Event scheduler

queue — A synchronized queue class

dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module

_thread — Low-level threading API

_dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module

Interprocess Communication and Networking

socket — Low-level networking interface

ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects

select — Waiting for I/O completion

selectors – High-level I/O multiplexing

asyncio – Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks

asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler

asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler

signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events

mmap — Memory-mapped file support

Internet Data Handling

email — An email and MIME handling package

json — JSON encoder and decoder

mailcap — Mailcap file handling

mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats

mimetypes — Map filenames to MIME types

base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings

binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 files

binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII

quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data

uu — Encode and decode uuencode files

Structured Markup Processing Tools

html — HyperText Markup Language support

html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser

html.entities — Definitions of HTML general entities

XML Processing Modules

xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API

xml.dom — The Document Object Model API

xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation

xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees

xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers

xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers

xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities

xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers

xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat

Internet Protocols and Support

webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller

cgi — Common Gateway Interface support

cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts

wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation

urllib — URL handling modules

urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs

urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib

urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components

urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request

urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt

http — HTTP modules

http.client — HTTP protocol client

ftplib — FTP protocol client

poplib — POP3 protocol client

imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client

nntplib — NNTP protocol client

smtplib — SMTP protocol client

smtpd — SMTP Server

telnetlib — Telnet client

uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122

socketserver — A framework for network servers

http.server — HTTP servers

http.cookies — HTTP state management

http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients

xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules

xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access

xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers

ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library

Multimedia Services

audioop — Manipulate raw audio data

aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC files

sunau — Read and write Sun AU files

wave — Read and write WAV files

chunk — Read IFF chunked data

colorsys — Conversions between color systems

imghdr — Determine the type of an image

sndhdr — Determine type of sound file

ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices

Internationalization

gettext — Multilingual internationalization services

locale — Internationalization services

Program Frameworks

turtle — Turtle graphics

cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters

shlex — Simple lexical analysis

Graphical User Interfaces with Tk

tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk

tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets

tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk

tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget

IDLE

Other Graphical User Interface Packages

Development Tools

pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system

doctest — Test interactive Python examples

unittest — Unit testing framework

unittest.mock — mock object library

unittest.mock — getting started

2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation

test — Regression tests package for Python

test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite

Debugging and Profiling

bdb — Debugger framework

faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback

pdb — The Python Debugger

The Python Profilers

timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets

trace — Trace or track Python statement execution

tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations

Examples

API

Software Packaging and Distribution

distutils — Building and installing Python modules

ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer

venv — Creation of virtual environments

Python Runtime Services

sys — System-specific parameters and functions

sysconfig — Provide access to Python's configuration information

builtins — Built-in objects

__main__ — Top-level script environment

warnings — Warning control

contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts

abc — Abstract Base Classes

atexit — Exit handlers

traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback

__future__ — Future statement definitions

gc — Garbage Collector interface

inspect — Inspect live objects

site — Site-specific configuration hook

fpectl — Floating point exception control

Custom Python Interpreters

code — Interpreter base classes

codeop — Compile Python code

Importing Modules

imp — Access the import internals

zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives

pkgutil — Package extension utility

modulefinder — Find modules used by a script

runpy — Locating and executing Python modules

importlib – The implementation of import

Python Language Services

parser — Access Python parse trees

ast — Abstract Syntax Trees

symtable — Access to the compiler's symbol tables

symbol — Constants used with Python parse trees

token — Constants used with Python parse trees

keyword — Testing for Python keywords

tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source

tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation

pyclbr — Python class browser support

py_compile — Compile Python source files

compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries

dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode

pickletools — Tools for pickle developers

Miscellaneous Services

formatter — Generic output formatting

MS Windows Specific Services

msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer files

msvcrt – Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime

winreg – Windows registry access

winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows

Unix Specific Services

posix — The most common POSIX system calls

pwd — The password database

spwd — The shadow password database

grp — The group database

crypt — Function to check Unix passwords

termios — POSIX style tty control

tty — Terminal control functions

pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities

fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls

pipes — Interface to shell pipelines

resource — Resource usage information

nis — Interface to Sun's NIS (Yellow Pages)

syslog — Unix syslog library routines

Undocumented Modules

Platform specific modules

Glossary

Bibliography

About these documents

Contributors to the Python Documentation

History and License

History of the software

Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python

Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software

Python Module Index

Index

The Python Library Reference Release 3.4.1 Guido van Rossum Fred L. Drake, Jr., editor May 22, 2014 Python Software Foundation Email: docs@python.org

CONTENTS 1 Introduction 2 Built-in Functions 3 Built-in Constants 3.1 Constants added by the site module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 Built-in Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Truth Value Testing . Boolean Operations — and, or, not . . . . Comparisons . 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 Numeric Types — int, float, complex . . . . . 4.5 4.6 4.7 4.8 4.9 4.10 Mapping Types — dict . . 4.11 Context Manager Types . 4.12 Other Built-in Types . 4.13 Special Attributes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Iterator Types . Sequence Types — list, tuple, range . . . . . Text Sequence Type — str . Binary Sequence Types — bytes, bytearray, memoryview . . . . . Set Types — set, frozenset . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Built-in Exceptions Base classes . Concrete exceptions . . . . Exception hierarchy . 5.1 5.2 5.3 Warnings . 5.4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 5 23 23 25 25 25 26 26 32 32 37 45 54 56 60 60 63 65 65 66 71 71 6 Text Processing Services 73 73 string — Common string operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 re — Regular expression operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . difflib — Helpers for computing deltas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98 textwrap — Text wrapping and ﬁlling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108 unicodedata — Unicode Database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111 stringprep — Internet String Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113 readline — GNU readline interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114 rlcompleter — Completion function for GNU readline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 . 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7 6.8 7 Binary Data Services 119 struct — Interpret bytes as packed binary data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119 codecs — Codec registry and base classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 7.1 7.2 8 Data Types 139 datetime — Basic date and time types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 calendar — General calendar-related functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167 collections — Container datatypes . 8.1 8.2 8.3 i

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181 collections.abc — Abstract Base Classes for Containers 8.4 heapq — Heap queue algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183 8.5 bisect — Array bisection algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187 8.6 array — Efﬁcient arrays of numeric values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189 8.7 weakref — Weak references . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192 8.8 8.9 types — Dynamic type creation and names for built-in types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199 8.10 copy — Shallow and deep copy operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202 8.11 pprint — Data pretty printer 8.12 reprlib — Alternate repr() implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209 8.13 enum — Support for enumerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 Numeric and Mathematical Modules 221 numbers — Numeric abstract base classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221 math — Mathematical functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224 cmath — Mathematical functions for complex numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228 decimal — Decimal ﬁxed point and ﬂoating point arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 fractions — Rational numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 random — Generate pseudo-random numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 statistics — Mathematical statistics functions . . . . . . 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 9.7 10 Functional Programming Modules 267 10.1 itertools — Functions creating iterators for efﬁcient looping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267 10.2 functools — Higher-order functions and operations on callable objects . . . . . . . . . . . . 280 10.3 operator — Standard operators as functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 11 File and Directory Access 293 11.1 pathlib — Object-oriented ﬁlesystem paths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 293 11.2 os.path — Common pathname manipulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306 11.3 fileinput — Iterate over lines from multiple input streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310 . . . 11.4 stat — Interpreting stat() results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 11.5 filecmp — File and Directory Comparisons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316 11.6 tempfile — Generate temporary ﬁles and directories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318 11.7 glob — Unix style pathname pattern expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321 11.8 fnmatch — Unix ﬁlename pattern matching . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322 11.9 linecache — Random access to text lines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323 11.10 shutil — High-level ﬁle operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324 11.11 macpath — Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330 . . . . . 12 Data Persistence 333 12.1 pickle — Python object serialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333 12.2 copyreg — Register pickle support functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 12.3 shelve — Python object persistence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 12.4 marshal — Internal Python object serialization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 12.5 dbm — Interfaces to Unix “databases” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352 12.6 sqlite3 — DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases . . . . . . 13 Data Compression and Archiving 371 13.1 zlib — Compression compatible with gzip . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371 13.2 gzip — Support for gzip ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374 . . . . . 13.3 bz2 — Support for bzip2 compression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376 13.4 lzma — Compression using the LZMA algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378 13.5 zipfile — Work with ZIP archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383 13.6 tarfile — Read and write tar archive ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14 File Formats 399 14.1 csv — CSV File Reading and Writing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399 14.2 configparser — Conﬁguration ﬁle parser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 404 14.3 netrc — netrc ﬁle processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420 14.4 xdrlib — Encode and decode XDR data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421 ii

14.5 plistlib — Generate and parse Mac OS X .plist ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424 15 Cryptographic Services 427 15.1 hashlib — Secure hashes and message digests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427 15.2 hmac — Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 429 16 Generic Operating System Services 433 16.1 os — Miscellaneous operating system interfaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433 16.2 io — Core tools for working with streams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470 16.3 time — Time access and conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 480 16.4 argparse — Parser for command-line options, arguments and sub-commands . . . . . . . . . 487 16.5 optparse — Parser for command line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 514 16.6 getopt — C-style parser for command line options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539 16.7 logging — Logging facility for Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541 16.8 logging.config — Logging conﬁguration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554 16.9 logging.handlers — Logging handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564 16.10 getpass — Portable password input . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 16.11 curses — Terminal handling for character-cell displays . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574 16.12 curses.textpad — Text input widget for curses programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 590 16.13 curses.ascii — Utilities for ASCII characters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 591 16.14 curses.panel — A panel stack extension for curses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593 16.15 platform — Access to underlying platform’s identifying data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594 16.16 errno — Standard errno system symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597 16.17 ctypes — A foreign function library for Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 603 . . . 17 Concurrent Execution 633 17.1 threading — Thread-based parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 633 17.2 multiprocessing — Process-based parallelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 644 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681 17.3 The concurrent package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 682 17.4 concurrent.futures — Launching parallel tasks . 17.5 subprocess — Subprocess management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 686 17.6 sched — Event scheduler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699 17.7 queue — A synchronized queue class . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701 17.8 dummy_threading — Drop-in replacement for the threading module . . . . . 703 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703 17.9 _thread — Low-level threading API . . . . . . . 705 17.10 _dummy_thread — Drop-in replacement for the _thread module . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18 Interprocess Communication and Networking 707 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 707 18.1 socket — Low-level networking interface 18.2 ssl — TLS/SSL wrapper for socket objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724 18.3 select — Waiting for I/O completion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 746 18.4 selectors – High-level I/O multiplexing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751 18.5 asyncio – Asynchronous I/O, event loop, coroutines and tasks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754 18.6 asyncore — Asynchronous socket handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791 18.7 asynchat — Asynchronous socket command/response handler . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 794 18.8 signal — Set handlers for asynchronous events . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 797 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802 18.9 mmap — Memory-mapped ﬁle support 19 Internet Data Handling 807 19.1 email — An email and MIME handling package . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807 19.2 json — JSON encoder and decoder . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857 19.3 mailcap — Mailcap ﬁle handling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864 19.4 mailbox — Manipulate mailboxes in various formats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865 19.5 mimetypes — Map ﬁlenames to MIME types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880 19.6 base64 — Base16, Base32, Base64, Base85 Data Encodings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883 19.7 binhex — Encode and decode binhex4 ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886 19.8 binascii — Convert between binary and ASCII . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886 19.9 quopri — Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888 19.10 uu — Encode and decode uuencode ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889 iii

20 Structured Markup Processing Tools . . 891 20.1 html — HyperText Markup Language support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891 20.2 html.parser — Simple HTML and XHTML parser . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891 20.3 html.entities — Deﬁnitions of HTML general entities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 20.4 XML Processing Modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 896 20.5 xml.etree.ElementTree — The ElementTree XML API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898 20.6 xml.dom — The Document Object Model API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911 20.7 xml.dom.minidom — Minimal DOM implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920 20.8 xml.dom.pulldom — Support for building partial DOM trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924 20.9 xml.sax — Support for SAX2 parsers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926 20.10 xml.sax.handler — Base classes for SAX handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932 20.11 xml.sax.saxutils — SAX Utilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933 20.12 xml.sax.xmlreader — Interface for XML parsers 20.13 xml.parsers.expat — Fast XML parsing using Expat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936 21 Internet Protocols and Support . . . . . . . 947 21.1 webbrowser — Convenient Web-browser controller . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 947 21.2 cgi — Common Gateway Interface support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949 21.3 cgitb — Traceback manager for CGI scripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955 21.4 wsgiref — WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956 21.5 urllib — URL handling modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 21.6 urllib.request — Extensible library for opening URLs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964 21.7 urllib.response — Response classes used by urllib . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 21.8 urllib.parse — Parse URLs into components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980 21.9 urllib.error — Exception classes raised by urllib.request . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987 21.10 urllib.robotparser — Parser for robots.txt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987 21.11 http — HTTP modules . 21.12 http.client — HTTP protocol client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994 21.13 ftplib — FTP protocol client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998 21.14 poplib — POP3 protocol client . . . 21.15 imaplib — IMAP4 protocol client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1001 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1006 21.16 nntplib — NNTP protocol client . . 21.17 smtplib — SMTP protocol client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1013 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1018 21.18 smtpd — SMTP Server . . 21.19 telnetlib — Telnet client . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1020 21.20 uuid — UUID objects according to RFC 4122 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1022 21.21 socketserver — A framework for network servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1025 21.22 http.server — HTTP servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1032 21.23 http.cookies — HTTP state management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1037 21.24 http.cookiejar — Cookie handling for HTTP clients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1040 21.25 xmlrpc — XMLRPC server and client modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 21.26 xmlrpc.client — XML-RPC client access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1048 21.27 xmlrpc.server — Basic XML-RPC servers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1055 21.28 ipaddress — IPv4/IPv6 manipulation library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1060 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22 Multimedia Services 1071 22.1 audioop — Manipulate raw audio data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1071 22.2 aifc — Read and write AIFF and AIFC ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1074 22.3 sunau — Read and write Sun AU ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1076 22.4 wave — Read and write WAV ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1078 22.5 chunk — Read IFF chunked data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1081 22.6 colorsys — Conversions between color systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1082 22.7 imghdr — Determine the type of an image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083 22.8 sndhdr — Determine type of sound ﬁle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1083 22.9 ossaudiodev — Access to OSS-compatible audio devices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1084 23 Internationalization 1089 23.1 gettext — Multilingual internationalization services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1089 23.2 locale — Internationalization services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1097 iv

24 Program Frameworks 1105 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1105 24.1 turtle — Turtle graphics . 24.2 cmd — Support for line-oriented command interpreters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1137 24.3 shlex — Simple lexical analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1142 . . . . 25 Graphical User Interfaces with Tk 1147 25.1 tkinter — Python interface to Tcl/Tk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1147 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1156 25.2 tkinter.ttk — Tk themed widgets . . 25.3 tkinter.tix — Extension widgets for Tk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1172 25.4 tkinter.scrolledtext — Scrolled Text Widget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1176 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1177 25.5 IDLE . 25.6 Other Graphical User Interface Packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1182 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26 Development Tools 1185 26.1 pydoc — Documentation generator and online help system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1185 26.2 doctest — Test interactive Python examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1186 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1208 26.3 unittest — Unit testing framework . 26.4 unittest.mock — mock object library . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1232 26.5 unittest.mock — getting started . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1263 26.6 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1280 26.7 test — Regression tests package for Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1285 26.8 test.support — Utilities for the Python test suite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1288 . . . 27 Debugging and Proﬁling . 1293 27.1 bdb — Debugger framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1293 27.2 faulthandler — Dump the Python traceback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1297 27.3 pdb — The Python Debugger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1299 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1304 27.4 The Python Proﬁlers . . . 27.5 timeit — Measure execution time of small code snippets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1312 27.6 trace — Trace or track Python statement execution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1316 27.7 tracemalloc — Trace memory allocations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1318 27.8 Examples . 27.9 API . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1322 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28 Software Packaging and Distribution 1327 28.1 distutils — Building and installing Python modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327 28.2 ensurepip — Bootstrapping the pip installer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1327 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1329 28.3 venv — Creation of virtual environments . . . . . . . . 29 Python Runtime Services . . 1337 29.1 sys — System-speciﬁc parameters and functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1337 29.2 sysconfig — Provide access to Python’s conﬁguration information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1349 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353 29.3 builtins — Built-in objects 29.4 __main__ — Top-level script environment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1353 29.5 warnings — Warning control 29.6 contextlib — Utilities for with-statement contexts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1358 29.7 abc — Abstract Base Classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1368 29.8 atexit — Exit handlers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1373 29.9 traceback — Print or retrieve a stack traceback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1374 29.10 __future__ — Future statement deﬁnitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1377 29.11 gc — Garbage Collector interface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1378 29.12 inspect — Inspect live objects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1381 29.13 site — Site-speciﬁc conﬁguration hook . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1392 29.14 fpectl — Floating point exception control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1395 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30 Custom Python Interpreters 30.1 code — Interpreter base classes 30.2 codeop — Compile Python code . . . . 1397 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1397 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1399 v

31 Importing Modules 1401 31.1 imp — Access the import internals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1401 31.2 zipimport — Import modules from Zip archives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1405 31.3 pkgutil — Package extension utility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1407 31.4 modulefinder — Find modules used by a script . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1409 31.5 runpy — Locating and executing Python modules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1411 31.6 importlib – The implementation of import . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1413 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32 Python Language Services 1427 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1427 32.1 parser — Access Python parse trees 32.2 ast — Abstract Syntax Trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1431 32.3 symtable — Access to the compiler’s symbol tables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1435 32.4 symbol — Constants used with Python parse trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1437 32.5 token — Constants used with Python parse trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1438 32.6 keyword — Testing for Python keywords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439 32.7 tokenize — Tokenizer for Python source . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1439 32.8 tabnanny — Detection of ambiguous indentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443 32.9 pyclbr — Python class browser support . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1443 32.10 py_compile — Compile Python source ﬁles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1444 32.11 compileall — Byte-compile Python libraries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1445 32.12 dis — Disassembler for Python bytecode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1447 32.13 pickletools — Tools for pickle developers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1457 33 Miscellaneous Services 1459 33.1 formatter — Generic output formatting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1459 34 MS Windows Speciﬁc Services 1463 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1463 34.1 msilib — Read and write Microsoft Installer ﬁles 34.2 msvcrt – Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1468 34.3 winreg – Windows registry access . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1469 34.4 winsound — Sound-playing interface for Windows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1477 35 Unix Speciﬁc Services . . 1479 35.1 posix — The most common POSIX system calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1479 35.2 pwd — The password database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480 35.3 spwd — The shadow password database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1480 35.4 grp — The group database . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1481 35.5 crypt — Function to check Unix passwords . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1482 35.6 termios — POSIX style tty control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1483 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1484 35.7 tty — Terminal control functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1485 35.8 pty — Pseudo-terminal utilities . 35.9 fcntl — The fcntl and ioctl system calls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1486 35.10 pipes — Interface to shell pipelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1488 35.11 resource — Resource usage information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1489 35.12 nis — Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1492 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1493 35.13 syslog — Unix syslog library routines . . . . . . . . . 36 Undocumented Modules 36.1 Platform speciﬁc modules . . . 1495 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1495 A Glossary Bibliography 1497 1507 B About these documents 1509 B.1 Contributors to the Python Documentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1509 C History and License 1511 C.1 History of the software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1511 C.2 Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1511 . . . . . vi

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