Cultures and Organizations_ Software for the Mind.pdf

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Contents

Preface

Part I: The Concept of Culture

1 The Rules of the Social Game

Different Minds but Common Problems

Culture as Mental Programming

Symbols, Heroes, Rituals, and Values

Culture Reproduces Itself

No Group Can Escape Culture

Values and the Moral Circle

Boundaries of the Moral Circle: Religion and Philosophy

Beyond Race and Family

We and They

Ideologies as Group Markers

Layers of Culture

Culture Change: Changing Practices, Stable Values

National Culture Differences

National Identities, Values, and Institutions

What About National Management Cultures?

Cultural Relativism

Culture as a Phoenix

2 Studying Cultural Differences

Measuring Values

Dimensions of National Cultures

Using Correlations

Replications of the IBM Research

Extending the IBM Model: The Chinese Value Survey

Validation of the Country Culture Scores Against Other Measures

Culture Scores and Personality Scores: No Reason for Stereotyping

Other Classifications of National Cultures

A Second Expansion of the Hofstede Dimensional Model: Minkov’s Exploration of the World Values Survey

Cultural Differences According to Region, Ethnicity, Religion, Gender, Generation, and Class

Organizational Cultures

Reading Mental Programs: Suggestions for Researchers

Part II: Dimensions of National Cultures

3 More Equal than Others

Inequality in Society

Measuring the Degree of Inequality in Society: The Power Distance Index

Power Distance Defined

Power Distance in Replication Studies

Power Distance Differences Within Countries: Social Class, Education Level, and Occupation

Measures Associated with Power Distance: The Structure in This and Following Chapters

Power Distance Difference Among Countries: Roots in the Family

Power Distance at School

Power Distance and Health Care

Power Distance in the Workplace

Power Distance and the State

Power Distance and Ideas

Origins of Power Distance Differences

The Future of Power Distance Differences

4 I, We, and They

The Individual and the Collective in Society

Measuring the Degree of Individualism in Society

Individualism and Collectivism in the World Values Survey: Universalism Versus Exclusionism

Individualism and Collectivism in Other Cross-National Studies

Are Individualism and Collectivism One or Two Dimensions?

Collectivism Versus Power Distance

Individualism and Collectivism According to Occupation

Individualism and Collectivism in the Family

Language, Personality, and Behavior in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures

Individualism and Collectivism at School

Individualism and Collectivism in the Workplace

Individualism, Collectivism, and the Internet

Individualism, Collectivism, and the State

Individualism, Collectivism, and Ideas

Origins of Individualism-Collectivism Differences

The Future of Individualism and Collectivism

5 He, She, and (S)he

Assertiveness Versus Modesty

Genders and Gender Roles

Masculinity-Femininity as a Dimension of Societal Culture

Masculinity and Femininity in Other Cross-National Studies

Masculinity Versus Individualism

Are Masculinity and Femininity One or Two Dimensions?

Country Masculinity Scores by Gender and Gender Scores by Age

Masculinity and Femininity According to Occupation

Masculinity and Femininity in the Family

Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles and Sex

Masculinity and Femininity in Education

Masculinity and Femininity in Shopping

Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace

Masculinity, Femininity, and the State

Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion

Origins of Masculinity-Femininity Differences

The Future of Differences in Masculinity and Femininity

6 What Is Different Is Dangerous

The Avoidance of Uncertainty

Measuring the (In)tolerance of Ambiguity in Society: The Uncertainty-Avoidance Index

Uncertainty Avoidance and Anxiety

Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance

Uncertainty Avoidance in Replication Studies: Project GLOBE

Uncertainty Avoidance According to Occupation, Gender, and Age

Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family

Uncertainty Avoidance, Health, and (Un)happiness

Uncertainty Avoidance at School

Uncertainty Avoidance in Shopping

Uncertainty Avoidance in the Workplace

Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity, and Motivation

Uncertainty Avoidance, the Citizen, and the State

Uncertainty Avoidance and Corruption

Uncertainty Avoidance, Xenophobia, and Nationalism

Uncertainty Avoidance, Religion, and Ideas

Origins of Uncertainty-Avoidance Differences

The Future of Uncertainty-Avoidance Differences

7 Yesterday, Now, or Later?

National Values and the Teachings of Confucius

Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Family Life

Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Business

Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Ways of Thinking

Long-Term Orientation Scores Based on World Values Survey Data

Long-Term Orientation and the GLOBE Dimensions

Long- and Short-Term Orientation, Family Relations, and School Results

Long- and Short-Term Orientation and Economic Growth

Economic Growth and Politics

Fundamentalisms as Short-Term Orientation

Short-Term Orientation in Africa

The Future of Long- and Short-Term Orientation

8 Light or Dark?

The Nature of Subjective Well-Being

Subjective Well-Being and the World Values Survey

Indulgence Versus Restraint as a Societal Dimension

Indulgence Versus Restraint and Subjective Well-Being in Other Cross-National Studies

Indulgence Versus Restraint, Subjective Health, Optimism, and Birthrates

Indulgence Versus Restraint, Importance of Friends, and Consumer Attitudes

Indulgence Versus Restraint and Sexual Relationships

Indulgence Versus Restraint in the Workplace

Indulgence Versus Restraint and the State

Origins of Societal Differences in Indulgence Versus Restraint

Part III: Cultures in Organizations

9 Pyramids, Machines, Markets, and Families: Organizing Across Nations

Implicit Models of Organizations

Management Professors Are Human

Culture and Organizational Structure: Elaborating on Mintzberg

Planning, Control, and Accounting

Corporate Governance and Business Goals

Motivation Theories and Practices

Leadership, Decision Making, and Empowerment

Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives

Management Training and Organization Development

Conclusion: Nationality Defines Organizational Rationality

10 The Elephant and the Stork: Organizational Cultures

The Organizational Culture Craze

Differences Between Organizational and National Cultures: The IRIC Project

Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches in the IRIC Project

Results of the In-Depth Interviews: The SAS Case

Results of the Survey: Six Dimensions of Organizational Cultures

The Scope for Competitive Advantages in Cultural Matters

Organizational Culture and Other Organizational Characteristics

Organizational Subcultures

Individual Perceptions of Organizational Cultures

Gardens, Bouquets, and Flowers of Social Science

Occupational Cultures

Conclusions from the IRIC Research Project: Dimensions Versus Gestalts

Managing (with) Organizational Culture

Part IV: Implications

11 Intercultural Encounters

Intended Versus Unintended Intercultural Conflict

Culture Shock and Acculturation

Ethnocentrism and Xenophilia

Group Encounters: Auto- and Heterostereotypes

Language and Humor

The Influence of Communication Technologies

Intercultural Encounters in Tourism

Intercultural Encounters in Schools

Minorities, Migrants, and Refugees

Intercultural Negotiations

Multinational Business Organizations

Coordinating Multinationals: Structure Should Follow Culture

Expanding Multinationals: International Mergers and Other Ventures

International Marketing, Advertising, and Consumer Behavior

International Politics and International Organizations

Economic Development, Nondevelopment, and Development Cooperation

Learning Intercultural Communication

Educating for Intercultural Understanding: Suggestions for Parents

Spreading Multicultural Understanding: The Role of the Media

Global Challenges Call for Intercultural Cooperation

12 The Evolution of Cultures

A Time-Machine Journey Through History

Five Million to One Million Years Ago: Lonely Planet

One Million to Forty Thousand Years Ago: Ice and Fire

Forty Thousand to Ten Thousand Years Ago: Creative Spark, Extermination

Twelve Thousand to Seven Thousand Five Hundred Years Ago: Villages and Agriculture

Seven Thousand Five Hundred Years Ago Until Now: Large-Scale Civilizations

Sources of Cultural Diversity and Change

The End of History? No!

The Essence of Evolution

Evolution: More than Genes

Evolution Beyond Selflshness: Groups over Individuals

Individuals and Institutions in the Stream of Life

Evolution at Work Today

The Future of Culture

Notes

Glossary

Bibliography

Name Index

Subject Index

Cultures and Organizations SOFTWARE OFTHE MIND Intercultural Cooperation and Its Importance for Survival Geert Hofstede Gert Jan Hofstede Michael Minkov |Mc IGrauu JHill New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto Milan New Delhi San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto

Copyright © 2010 by Geert Hofstede BV. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the publisher. ISBN: 978-0-07-177015-6 MHID: 0-07-177015-1 The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-166418-9, MHID: 0-07-166418-1. All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name, we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the beneﬁ t of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark. Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps. McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training programs. To contact a representative please e-mail us at bulksales@mcgraw-hill.com. TERMS OF USE This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGrawHill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work. Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit, distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent. You may use the work for your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if you fail to comply with these terms. THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK, INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE, AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF MERCHANT- ABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/ or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or otherwise.

Contents Preface PA R T I The Concept of Culture 1 The Rules of the Social Game Different Minds but Common Problems Culture as Mental Programming Symbols, Heroes, Rituals, and Values Culture Reproduces Itself No Group Can Escape Culture Values and the Moral Circle Boundaries of the Moral Circle: Religion and Philosophy Beyond Race and Family We and They Ideologies as Group Markers Layers of Culture Culture Change: Changing Practices, Stable Values National Culture Differences National Identities, Values, and Institutions iii xi 3 4 4 7 10 11 12 13 14 16 17 17 18 20 22

iv Contents What About National Management Cultures? Cultural Relativism Culture as a Phoenix 2 Studying Cultural Differences Measuring Values Dimensions of National Cultures Using Correlations Replications of the IBM Research Extending the IBM Model: The Chinese Value Survey Validation of the Country Culture Scores Against Other Measures Culture Scores and Personality Scores: No Reason for Stereotyping Other Classiﬁ cations of National Cultures A Second Expansion of the Hofstede Dimensional Model: Minkov’s Exploration of the World Values Survey Cultural Differences According to Region, Ethnicity, Religion, Gender, Generation, and Class Organizational Cultures Reading Mental Programs: Suggestions for Researchers PA R T II Dimensions of National Cultures 3 More Equal than Others Inequality in Society Measuring the Degree of Inequality in Society: The Power Distance Index Power Distance Deﬁ ned Power Distance in Replication Studies Power Distance Differences Within Countries: Social Class, Education Level, and Occupation Measures Associated with Power Distance: The Structure in This and Following Chapters Power Distance Difference Among Countries: Roots in the Family Power Distance at School 24 25 26 27 28 29 32 34 37 38 39 40 44 45 47 47 53 54 55 60 62 64 66 67 69

Contents Power Distance and Health Care Power Distance in the Workplace Power Distance and the State Power Distance and Ideas Origins of Power Distance Differences The Future of Power Distance Differences 4 I, We, and They The Individual and the Collective in Society Measuring the Degree of Individualism in Society Individualism and Collectivism in the World Values Survey: Universalism Versus Exclusionism Individualism and Collectivism in Other Cross-National Studies Are Individualism and Collectivism One or Two Dimensions? Collectivism Versus Power Distance Individualism and Collectivism According to Occupation Individualism and Collectivism in the Family Language, Personality, and Behavior in Individualist and Collectivist Cultures Individualism and Collectivism at School Individualism and Collectivism in the Workplace Individualism, Collectivism, and the Internet Individualism, Collectivism, and the State Individualism, Collectivism, and Ideas Origins of Individualism-Collectivism Differences The Future of Individualism and Collectivism 5 He, She, and (S)he Assertiveness Versus Modesty Genders and Gender Roles Masculinity-Femininity as a Dimension of Societal Culture Masculinity and Femininity in Other Cross-National Studies Masculinity Versus Individualism Are Masculinity and Femininity One or Two Dimensions? Country Masculinity Scores by Gender and Gender Scores by Age Masculinity and Femininity According to Occupation Masculinity and Femininity in the Family Masculinity and Femininity in Gender Roles and Sex v 71 73 75 79 82 86 89 90 92 94 99 102 102 105 106 112 117 119 123 125 127 131 133 135 136 137 138 144 146 146 148 150 151 154

vi Contents Masculinity and Femininity in Education Masculinity and Femininity in Shopping Masculinity and Femininity in the Workplace Masculinity, Femininity, and the State Masculinity, Femininity, and Religion Origins of Masculinity-Femininity Differences The Future of Differences in Masculinity and Femininity 6 What Is Different Is Dangerous The Avoidance of Uncertainty Measuring the (In)tolerance of Ambiguity in Society: The Uncertainty-Avoidance Index Uncertainty Avoidance and Anxiety Uncertainty Avoidance Is Not the Same as Risk Avoidance Uncertainty Avoidance in Replication Studies: Project GLOBE Uncertainty Avoidance According to Occupation, Gender, and Age Uncertainty Avoidance in the Family Uncertainty Avoidance, Health, and (Un)happiness Uncertainty Avoidance at School Uncertainty Avoidance in Shopping Uncertainty Avoidance in the Workplace Uncertainty Avoidance, Masculinity, and Motivation Uncertainty Avoidance, the Citizen, and the State Uncertainty Avoidance and Corruption Uncertainty Avoidance, Xenophobia, and Nationalism Uncertainty Avoidance, Religion, and Ideas Origins of Uncertainty-Avoidance Differences The Future of Uncertainty-Avoidance Differences 7 Yesterday, Now, or Later? National Values and the Teachings of Confucius Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Family Life Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Business Implications of LTO-CVS Differences for Ways of Thinking Long-Term Orientation Scores Based on World Values Survey Data Long-Term Orientation and the GLOBE Dimensions 158 163 164 170 175 180 184 187 188 190 195 197 198 199 200 202 205 206 208 213 216 221 224 226 232 233 235 236 240 242 246 252 259

Contents vii Long- and Short-Term Orientation, Family Relations, and School Results Long- and Short-Term Orientation and Economic Growth Economic Growth and Politics Fundamentalisms as Short-Term Orientation Short-Term Orientation in Africa The Future of Long- and Short-Term Orientation 8 Light or Dark? The Nature of Subjective Well-Being Subjective Well-Being and the World Values Survey Indulgence Versus Restraint as a Societal Dimension Indulgence Versus Restraint and Subjective Well-Being in Other Cross-National Studies Indulgence Versus Restraint, Subjective Health, Optimism, and Birthrates Indulgence Versus Restraint, Importance of Friends, and Consumer Attitudes Indulgence Versus Restraint and Sexual Relationships Indulgence Versus Restraint in the Workplace Indulgence Versus Restraint and the State Origins of Societal Differences in Indulgence Versus Restraint 260 262 267 269 271 274 277 278 279 280 288 289 290 293 294 295 296 PA R T III Cultures in Organizations 9 Pyramids, Machines, Markets, and Families: Organizing Across Nations 301 302 Implicit Models of Organizations 307 Management Professors Are Human Culture and Organizational Structure: Elaborating on Mintzberg 312 315 Planning, Control, and Accounting 320 Corporate Governance and Business Goals Motivation Theories and Practices 327 331 Leadership, Decision Making, and Empowerment 334 Performance Appraisal and Management by Objectives 336 Management Training and Organization Development Conclusion: Nationality Deﬁ nes Organizational Rationality 337

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