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微波辐射计系统：Microwave Radiometer Systems：Design and Analysis.pdf

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    Microwave Radiometer Systems Design and Analysis Second Edition
    Contents
    Preface xi
    1 Introduction 1
    2 Summary 3
    3 The Radiometer Receiver: Sensitivity and Accuracy 7
    3.1 What Is a Radiometer Receiver? 7
    3.2 The Sensitivity of the Radiometer 7
    3.3 Absolute Accuracy and Stability 9
    4 Radiometer Principles 13
    4.1 The Total Power Radiometer (TPR) 13
    4.2 The Dicke Radiometer (DR) 14
    4.3 The Noise-Injection Radiometer (NIR) 16
    4.4 The Correlation Radiometer (CORRAD) 18
    4.5 Hybrid Radiometer 20
    4.6 Other Radiometer Types 21
    5 Radiometer Receivers on a Block Diagram Level 25
    5.1 Receiver Principles 25
    5.1.1 Direct or Superheterodyne 25
    5.1.2 DSB or SSB with or without RF Preamplifier 26
    5.2 Dicke Radiometer 27
    5.2.1 Microwave Part 27
    5.2.2 The Noise Figure and the Sensitivity of the Radiometer 29
    5.2.3 The IF Circuitry and the Detector 30
    5.2.4 The Extreme Signal Levels 32
    5.2.5 The LF Circuitry 33
    5.2.6 The Analog-to-Digital Converter 34
    5.2.7 On the Sampling in the Radiometer: Aliasing 37
    5.3 The Noise-Injection Radiometer 38
    5.4 The Total Power Radiometer 40
    5.4.1 DSB Receiver without RF Preamplifier 40
    5.4.2 SSB Receiver with RF Preamplifier 42
    5.5 Stability Considerations 43
    6 The DTU Noise-Injection Radiometers Example 47
    7 Polarimetric Radiometers 55
    7.1 Polarimetry and Stokes Parameters 55
    7.2 Radiometric Signatures of the Ocean 57
    7.3 Four Configurations 57
    7.3.1 Polarization Combining Radiometers 57
    7.3.2 Correlation Radiometers 60
    7.4 Sensitivities 62
    7.5 Discussion of Configurations 64
    7.6 The DTU Polarimetric System 64
    8 Synthetic Aperture Radiometer Principles 69
    8.1 Introduction 69
    8.2 Practical Considerations 72
    8.2.1 RF Processing 72
    8.2.2 Basic Equation 73
    8.2.3 Image Processing 74
    8.2.4 Sensitivity 75
    8.3 Example 76
    9 Calibration and Linearity 81
    9.1 Why Calibrate? 81
    9.2 Calibration Sources 82
    9.3 Example: Calibration of a 5-GHz Radiometer 86
    9.4 Linearity Measured by Simple Means 87
    9.4.1 Background 88
    9.4.2 Simple Three-Point Calibration 89
    9.4.3 Linearity Checked by Slope Measurements 92
    9.4.4 Measurements 93
    9.5 Calibration of Polarimetric Radiometers 96
    10 Sensitivity and Stability: Experiments with Basic Radiometer Receivers 99
    10.1 Background 99
    10.2 The Radiometers Used in the Experiments 100
    10.3 The Experimental Setup 101
    10.4 5-GHz Sensitivity Measurements 102
    10.5 Stability Measurements 103
    10.5.1 Discussion of the 5-GHz DR Results 103
    10.5.2 The 5-GHz DR with Correction Algorithm 105
    10.5.3 The 17-GHz NIR Results 109
    10.5.4 Discussion of the TPR Results 111
    10.5.5 Back-End Stability 113
    10.6 Conclusions 114
    11 Radiometer Antennas and Real Aperture Imaging Considerations 117
    11.1 Beam Efficiency and Losses 117
    11.2 Antenna Types 119
    11.3 Imaging Considerations 121
    11.4 The Dwell Time Per Footprint Versus the Sampling Time in the Radiometer 125
    11.5 Receiver Considerations for Imagers 130
    12 Relationships Between Swath Width, Footprint, Integration Time, Sensitivity, Frequency, and Other Parameters for Satellite-Borne, Real Aperture Imaging Systems 133
    12.1 Mechanical Scan 134
    12.2 Push-Broom Systems 139
    12.3 Summary and Discussion 140
    12.4 Examples 143
    12.4.1 General-Purpose Multifrequency Mission 143
    12.4.2 Coastal Salinity Sensor 143
    12.4.3 Realistic Salinity Sensor 144
    13 First Example of a Spaceborne Imager: A General-Purpose Mechanical Scanner 147
    13.1 Background 147
    13.2 System Considerations 149
    13.2.1 General Geometric and Radiometric Characteristics 149
    13.2.2 Instrument Options 152
    13.2.3 Baseline Instrument Specifications 156
    13.2.4 Instrument Layout and Receiver Type 156
    13.3 Receiver Design 157
    13.3.1 The Direct Receivers (10.65–36.5 GHz) 157
    13.3.2 The 89-GHz DSB Receivers 158
    13.3.3 Integrated Receivers: Weight and Power 159
    13.3.4 Performance of the Receivers 160
    13.3.5 Critical Design Features 161
    13.4 Antenna Design 163
    13.5 Calibration and Linearity 165
    13.5.1 Prelaunch Radiometric Calibration 165
    13.5.2 On-Board Calibration 166
    13.6 System Issues 167
    13.6.1 System Weight and Power 167
    13.6.2 Data Rate 168
    13.7 Summary 169
    14 Second Example of a Spaceborne Imager: A Sea Salinity/Soil Moisture Push-Broom Radiometer System 171
    14.1 Background 171
    14.2 The Brightness Temperature of the Sea 172
    14.3 The Brightness Temperature of Moist Soil 175
    14.4 User Requirements for Geophysical and Spatial Resolution 177
    14.4.1 Salinity Measurements 177
    14.4.2 Soil Moisture Measurements 177
    14.5 A 1.4-GHz Push-Broom Radiometer System 177
    14.5.1 Sensitivity Considerations 177
    14.5.2 The 1.4-GHz Noise-Injection Radiometer Receiver 178
    14.5.3 Antenna Considerations 181
    14.5.4 Layout of the System 181
    14.6 Calibration 184
    14.7 A Disturbing Factor: The Faraday Rotation 186
    14.7.1 The Faraday Rotation 186
    14.7.2 Correction Based on Knowing the Rotation Angle 187
    14.7.3 Correction Based on the Polarization Ratio 189
    14.7.4 Consequences for Instrument Design 191
    14.7.5 Circumventing the Problem by Using the First Stokes Parameter 191
    14.8 Other Disturbing Factors: Space and Atmosphere 192
    14.8.1 Space Radiation 192
    14.8.2 Atmospheric Effects 193
    14.9 Summary 193
    15 Examples of Synthetic Aperture Radiometers 197
    15.1 Introduction 197
    15.2 Implementation of Synthesis 198
    15.3 Airborne Example: ESTAR 200
    15.3.1 Hardware 200
    15.3.2 Image Reconstruction 204
    15.3.3 Calibration 205
    15.3.4 Discussion 207
    15.3.5 Example of Imagery 208
    15.4 Spaceborne Examples 211
    15.4.1 HYDROSTAR 211
    15.4.2 SMOS 214
    Acronyms 219
    Microwave Radiometer Systems Design and Analysis Second Edition
    For a complete listing of the Artech House Remote Sensing Library, turn to the back of this book.
    Microwave Radiometer Systems Design and Analysis Second Edition Niels Skou David Le Vine a r t e c h h o u s e . c o m
    Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Skou, Niels, 1947– Microwave radiometer systems: design and analysis/Niels Skou, David Le Vine.—2nd ed. p. cm.— (Artech House Remote Sensing library) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 1-58053-974-2 (alk. paper) 1. Radiometers—Design and construction. 2. Microwave detectors. I. Le Vine, D. M. II. Title. III. Artech House remote sensing library. TK7876.S5767 2006 621.381’3—dc22 2005057085 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Skou, Neils, 1947– Microwave radiometer systems: design and analysis.—2nd ed.—(Artech House remote sens- ing library) 1. Radiometers—Design and construction 2. Microwave detectors I. Title II. Le Vine, David 621.3’813 ISBN 1-58053-974-2 Cover design by Igor Valdman © 2006 ARTECH HOUSE, INC. 685 Canton Street Norwood, MA 02062 All rights reserved. Printed and bound in the United States of America. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including pho- tocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. All terms mentioned in this book that are known to be trademarks or service marks have been appropriately capitalized. Artech House cannot attest to the accuracy of this information. Use of a term in this book should not be regarded as affecting the validity of any trademark or service mark. International Standard Book Number: 1-58053-974-2 Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 2005057085 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
    Contents 1 2 3 3.1 3.2 3.3 4 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5 Preface Introduction References Summary The Radiometer Receiver: Sensitivity and Accuracy What Is a Radiometer Receiver? The Sensitivity of the Radiometer Absolute Accuracy and Stability References Radiometer Principles The Total Power Radiometer (TPR) The Dicke Radiometer (DR) The Noise-Injection Radiometer (NIR) The Correlation Radiometer (CORRAD) Hybrid Radiometer v xi 1 2 3 7 7 7 9 11 13 13 14 16 18 20
    vi Microwave Radiometer Systems: Design and Analysis 4.6 5 5.1 5.1.1 5.1.2 Other Radiometer Types References Radiometer Receivers on a Block Diagram Level Receiver Principles Direct or Superheterodyne DSB or SSB with or without RF Preamplifier Dicke Radiometer 5.2 5.2.1 Microwave Part 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 5.2.5 5.2.6 5.2.7 The Noise Figure and the Sensitivity of the Radiometer The IF Circuitry and the Detector The Extreme Signal Levels The LF Circuitry The Analog-to-Digital Converter On the Sampling in the Radiometer: Aliasing 5.3 5.4 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.5 6 7 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.3.1 7.3.2 7.4 7.5 The Noise-Injection Radiometer The Total Power Radiometer DSB Receiver without RF Preamplifier SSB Receiver with RF Preamplifier Stability Considerations References The DTU Noise-Injection Radiometers Example References Polarimetric Radiometers Polarimetry and Stokes Parameters Radiometric Signatures of the Ocean Four Configurations Polarization Combining Radiometers Correlation Radiometers Sensitivities Discussion of Configurations 21 22 25 25 25 26 27 27 29 30 32 33 34 37 38 40 40 42 43 44 47 53 55 55 57 57 57 60 62 64
    Contents The DTU Polarimetric System References Synthetic Aperture Radiometer Principles Introduction Practical Considerations RF Processing Basic Equation Image Processing Sensitivity Example References Selected Bibliography Calibration and Linearity Why Calibrate? Calibration Sources Example: Calibration of a 5-GHz Radiometer 7.6 8 8.1 8.2 8.2.1 8.2.2 8.2.3 8.2.4 8.3 9 9.1 9.2 9.3 Linearity Measured by Simple Means Background Simple Three-Point Calibration Linearity Checked by Slope Measurements 9.4 9.4.1 9.4.2 9.4.3 9.4.4 Measurements 9.5 10 10.1 10.2 10.3 10.4 Calibration of Polarimetric Radiometers References Sensitivity and Stability: Experiments with Basic Radiometer Receivers Background The Radiometers Used in the Experiments The Experimental Setup 5-GHz Sensitivity Measurements vii 64 68 69 69 72 72 73 74 75 76 78 79 81 81 82 86 87 88 89 92 93 96 98 99 99 100 101 102
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