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Front matter
Single-Photon Imaging
Preface
Contents
Contributors
Chapter 1: Fundamentals of Noise in Optoelectronics
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Quantization of Electromagnetic Radiation, Electrical Charge, and Energy Statesin Bound Systems
1.3 Basic Properties of the Poisson Distribution
1.4 Interaction of Radiation and Matter
1.5 Noise Properties of Light Sources
1.5.1 Coherent Light (Single-Mode Lasers)
1.5.2 Thermal (Incandescent) Light Sources
1.5.3 Partially Coherent Light (Discharge Lamps)
1.5.4 Light Emitting Diodes
1.6 The Meaning of ``Single-Photon Imaging''
1.7 Energy Band Model of Solid State Matter
1.8 Detection of Electromagnetic Radiation with Semiconductors
1.8.1 Quantum Efficiency and Band Structure
1.8.2 Thermal Equilibrium and Nonequilibrium Carrier Concentrations
1.8.3 Dark Current
1.8.4 Avalanche Effect and Excess Noise Factor
1.9 Electronic Detection of Charge
1.9.1 Basic Components of Electronicsand their Noise Properties
1.9.2 Basic Circuits for Electronic Charge Detection
1.9.3 Conclusions for Single-Electron Charge Detection
1.10 Summary: Physical Limits of the Detection of Light
1.10.1 Sensitive Wavelength Range
1.10.2 Dark Current and Quantum Efficiency
1.10.3 Electronic Charge Detection
References
Chapter 2: Image Sensor Technology
2.1 Program and a Brief History of Solid-State Image Sensors
2.2 Anatomy of an Image Sensor
2.3 Operation
2.4 Image Sensor Devices
2.5 Image Sensor Process Technology
2.6 Outlook for a Single Photon Process Technology
References
Chapter 3: Hybrid Avalanche Photodiode Array Imaging
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Principle of Hybrid APD Operation
3.3 Single-pixel Large Format Hybrid APD
3.3.1 Device Description
3.3.2 Performance
3.3.3 Application
3.4 Multipixel Hybrid APD Array
3.4.1 Device Description
3.4.2 Performance
3.4.3 Application
3.5 Conclusions and Remaining Issues
References
Chapter 4: Electron Bombarded Semiconductor Image Sensors
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Electron Bombarded Semiconductor Gain Process
4.3 Hybrid Photomultiplier EBS Image Sensors
4.3.1 Hybrid Photomultiplier Gain and Noise Analysis
4.3.2 Hybrid Photomultiplier Time Response
4.3.3 Hybrid Photomultiplier Imagers
4.4 EBCCD and EBCMOS EBS Image Sensors
References
Chapter 5: Single-Photon Imaging Using Electron Multiplication in Vacuum
5.1 Introduction
5.2 The Photocathode
5.2.1 The Working Principle of Photocathodes
5.2.2 Multialkali Photocathodes
5.2.3 III–V Photocathodes
5.3 Image Intensifiers
5.3.1 Working Principle
5.3.2 Applications
5.3.3 The Components of an Image Intensifier
5.3.3.1 Input Window and Photocathode
5.3.3.2 Multichannel Plate
5.3.3.3 Phosphor Screen and Output Window
5.3.3.4 Enclosure and Power Supply
5.3.4 Performance Characteristics
5.3.4.1 High Light Level Performance
5.3.4.2 Low Light Level Performance
5.3.4.3 Image Artifacts
5.3.4.4 Comparison with Solid State Imagers
5.3.5 Special Image Intensifiers
5.3.5.1 Fast Gating Image Intensifiers
5.3.5.2 High Gain Intensifiers
5.3.5.3 Image Intensifiers with Electronic Output
5.3.5.4 Open MCP Detectors
5.4 Photomultiplier Tube
5.4.1 Working Principle
5.4.2 Applications
5.4.3 The Components of a PMT
5.4.3.1 Tube and Photocathode
5.4.3.2 Dynodes and Anode and Power Supply
5.4.3.3 Special PMTs
5.4.4 Performance Characteristics
5.4.4.1 Quantum Efficiency and Dark Current
5.4.4.2 Gain and Dynamic Range
5.4.4.3 Timing Characteristics
5.4.4.4 Comparison with Solid-State Detectors
5.5 Conclusions and Outlook
References
Chapter 6: Electron-Multiplying Charge Coupled Devices – EMCCDs
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Harnessing Impact Ionisation for Ultra SensitiveCCD Imaging
6.3 The Electron Multiplying CCD Concept
6.3.1 Output Amplifier Noise
6.3.2 The Use of Multiplication Gain
6.3.3 Noise and Signal-to-Noise Ratio
6.3.4 Output Signal Distributions
6.4 Photon Counting with the EMCCD
6.5 Background Signal Generation
6.5.1 Dark Signal
6.5.2 Statistics of Dark Signal Generation
6.5.3 Spurious Charge Generation
6.6 Improving the Efficiency of Signal Generation
6.7 Concluding Comments
References
Chapter 7: Monolithic Single-Photon Avalanche Diodes: SPADs
7.1 A Brief Historical Perspective
7.2 Fundamental Mechanisms
7.2.1 SPAD Structure and Operation
7.2.2 Idle State and Avalanche Buildup
7.2.3 Quench, Spread, and Recharge
7.2.4 Example Waveforms
7.2.5 Pulse-Shaping
7.2.6 Uncorrelated Noise: Dark Counts
7.2.7 Correlated Noise: Afterpulsing and Other Time Uncertainties
7.2.7.1 Afterpulsing
7.2.7.2 Optical and Electrical Crosstalk
7.2.7.3 Charge Pile-Up
7.2.8 Sensitivity: Photon Detection Probability
7.2.9 Wavelength Discrimination
7.3 Fabricating Monolithic SPADs
7.3.1 Vertical Versus Planar SPADs
7.3.2 Implementation in Planar Processes
7.3.2.1 Premature Edge Breakdown
7.3.2.2 Quenching and Recharge Implementation
7.3.3 SPAD Nonidealities
7.3.4 SPAD Array Nonidealities
7.4 Architecting SPAD Arrays
7.4.1 Basic Architectures
7.4.2 On-Chip Architecture
7.4.3 In-Column Architecture
7.4.4 In-Pixel Architecture
7.5 Trends in Monolithic Array Designs
7.6 Conclusions
References
Chapter 8: Single Photon CMOS Imaging Through Noise Minimization
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Theory
8.2.1 QE and MTF
8.2.2 Photo-carrier Detection Probability
8.2.3 Additive Temporal Noise Systems
8.2.4 Uncorrelated Temporal Noise Sources
8.2.4.1 Thermal and Shot Noise
8.2.4.2 Flicker and Random Telegraph Signal Noise
8.2.4.3 Charge Transfer Noise
8.2.4.4 Capacitive Reset Noise
8.2.5 Correlated Temporal Noise Sources
8.3 Amplification and Bandwidth Control
8.3.1 Amplification
8.3.2 Bandwidth Control
8.4 Architectures
8.4.1 4T Pixel with Pinned Photodiode Column Level Amplification and CDS
8.4.2 4T CTIA Pixel with Pinned Photo Diode Column Level Amplification and CDS
8.4.3 Architecture Comparison
8.5 Low-Noise CMOS Image Sensor Optimization
8.5.1 Electrical
8.5.2 Optical
8.6 Conclusion
References
Chapter 9: Architectures for Low-noise CMOS Electronic Imaging
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Signal Readout Architectures
9.3 Correlated Samplings and their Noise Responses
9.3.1 Correlated Double Sampling and Correlated Multiple Sampling
9.3.2 Response of CDS and CMS to Thermaland 1/f Noises
9.3.2.1 Modeling of CDS
9.3.2.2 Response of CDS to Thermal and 1/f Noises
9.3.2.3 Response of CMS Circuit to Thermal and 1/f Noises
9.4 Noise in Active-pixel CMOS Image Sensors Using Column CMS Circuits
9.5 Possibility of Single Photon Detection
9.5.1 Single Photon Detection Using Quantization
9.5.2 Condition for Single Photon Detection
References
Chapter 10: Low-Noise Electronic Imaging with Double-Gate FETs and Charge-Modulation Devices
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Double-Gate FET Charge Detector
10.2.1 Floating Well Type
10.2.1.1 Device Structure
10.2.1.2 Device Simulation
10.2.1.3 Evaluation
10.2.2 Floating Surface Type
10.2.2.1 Device Structure
10.2.2.2 Device Simulation
10.2.2.3 Evaluation
10.2.2.4 Discussion
10.3 CCD Image Sensor with Double-Gate FET Charge Detector
10.3.1 Sensor Construction
10.3.2 Feedback Charge Detector
10.3.3 Evaluation
10.3.4 Signal Processing
10.4 Charge-Modulation Image Pixel Application
10.4.1 Pixel Construction
10.4.2 Operation
10.4.3 Simulation
10.4.4 Results
10.4.5 Applications of Area Sensor
10.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 11: Energy-Sensitive Single-Photon X-ray and Particle Imaging
11.1 Introduction
11.1.1 Applications
11.1.2 Basic Topology
11.2 Particle Sensing Devices
11.2.1 Direct Conversion Sensing Devices
11.2.1.1 Monolithic Detectors
11.2.1.2 Hybrid Detectors
11.2.2 Scintillators Coupled to Sensing Devices for Visible Light
11.2.2.1 p–n Photodiodes
11.2.2.2 Photogates
11.2.2.3 Buried Photodiodes
11.3 Asynchronous Charge Pulse Detecting Circuits
11.3.1 Charge Sensitive Amplifier
11.3.1.1 Feedback Resistor Noise of CSAs
11.3.1.2 Amplifier Noise of CSAs
11.3.1.3 Sensing Device Leakage Current Poisson Noise in CSAs
11.3.1.4 Sensing Device DC Current Compensation
11.3.2 Charge Sensitive Amplifier with Shaper
11.3.2.1 Feedback Resistor Noise of CSA-Shaper Circuits
11.3.2.2 Amplifier Noise of CSA-Shaper Circuits
11.3.2.3 Feedback Resistor Implementations
11.3.3 Voltage Buffer with Shaper
11.3.3.1 Noise Analysis of Buffer-Shaper Circuits
11.4 Voltage Pulse Processing Circuits
11.4.1 Energy Discrimination Methods
11.4.1.1 Multiple Threshold Discrimination
11.4.1.2 Amplitude Detection
11.4.1.3 Time-Over-Threshold Detection
11.4.2 Information Readout
11.4.2.1 Synchronous Readout
11.4.2.2 Self-Triggered Readout
References
Chapter 12: Single-Photon Detectors for Time-of-Flight Range Imaging
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Time-of-Flight Measuring Techniques and Systems
12.2.1 Time-of-flight System
12.2.2 Direct and Indirect Time Measuring Techniques
12.2.3 Optical Power Budget
12.2.4 D-TOF and I-TOF Noise Considerations
12.3 Single-Photon Sensors for 3D-TOF Imaging
12.3.1 Single-photon Detectors
12.3.2 Pixel Architectures for Single-photon TOF Imaging
12.3.3 Circuit Implementations for I-TOF Pixels
12.3.4 Circuit Implementations for D-TOF Pixels
12.3.5 State-of-the-art Time-resolved CMOS SPAD Pixel-array
12.4 Challenges and Future Perspectives
12.5 Conclusions
References
Chapter 13: Single-Photon Imaging for Astronomyand Aerospace Applications
13.1 Introduction
13.2 Scientific Detectors in Astronomy and Space Applications
13.2.1 Scientific CCDs
13.2.1.1 Hybrid Detectors for Infrared
13.3 Imaging Through the Atmosphere
13.4 Lucky Imaging Technique
13.5 Adaptive Optics
13.5.1 Principles
13.5.2 Wavefront Sensor Requirements and Detector Implementations
13.5.3 Infrared Detectors for Wavefront Sensor
13.6 Space LIDAR Applications
13.7 Concluding Remarks
Appendix
Visual Magnitude [71]
Astronomical Spectral Bands Denomination [71]
References
Chapter 14: Exploiting Molecular Biology by Time-Resolved Fluorescence Imaging
14.1 Introduction: Time-Resolved Fluorescence as a Uniquely Sensitive Detection Method for the Analysis of Molecular Biology
14.1.1 Labeling of Specific Molecules by a Long-Lifetime Fluorophore
14.1.2 Integration of the Investigated Specimens in a Planar Array: Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Assays
14.1.3 Excitation of Multiple Specimens in the Array by Intense Light Pulses and Imaging of the Arrayed Specimens on an Image Sensor conceived for Time-Gated Readout of the Fluorescence Signal
14.1.4 Microarray Assays
14.2 Properties of the Ideal Fluorophore for Ultra-Sensitive Fluorescence Detection
14.3 Ruthenium Complexes
14.4 Applications in the Life Sciences
14.4.1 Assay for Drug Discovery
14.4.2 Assay for Point of Care Testing
14.5 Prospective Use of Ultra-Low-Noise CMOS Image Sensors for Time-Resolved Fluorescence Imaging
References
Index
160
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OPTICAL SCIENCES
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Editor-in-Chief: W. T. Rhodes, Atlanta
Editorial Board: A. Adibi, Atlanta
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H. Weinfurter, München
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Peter Seitz
Albert J.P. Theuwissen
Editors
Single-Photon
Imaging
With 250 Figures
123
Editors
Peter Seitz
CSEM SA
Bahnhofstraße 1, 7302 Landquart, Switzerland
E-mail: peter.seitz@csem.ch
Albert J.P. Theuwissen
Delft University of Technology
Mekelweg 4, 2628 CD Delft, The Netherlands
E-mail: a.j.p.theuwissen@tudelft.nl
Springer Series in Optical Sciences
ISBN 978-3-642-18442-0
DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-18443-7
Springer Heidelberg Dordrecht London New York
ISSN 0342-4111
e-ISBN 978-3-642-18443-7
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e-ISSN 1556-1534
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Preface
Dark clouds hung over physics toward the end of the nineteenth century, when
physicists began to appreciate that their comprehension of the nature of light
was critically incomplete. The classical description of light as an electromagnetic
wave satisfying the beautiful equations of Maxwell obviously failed to explain
significant optical effects: How is radiation absorbed by matter? How can light with
such strange, narrow spectra be emitted by gases or solid materials? How can the
nature of blackbody radiation be explained? In a radical step, Albert Einstein and
Max Planck provided the key to this impasse by introducing the revolutionary notion
that the energy states of the electromagnetic field are not continuous but rather
quantized – they successfully imagined the photon. So, finally the clouds parted,
opening vistas into the strange world of quantum physics.
A natural consequence of the concept of a photon is the existence of an ultimate
detection limit of electromagnetic radiation. Once you can sense each individual
photon (possibly gaining also information about its energy and polarization state),
you know all about incident radiation that can be known. For this reason, the
holy grail of photosensing is the spatially resolved detection of light with this
ultimate precision, single photon imaging. The aim of this book is to provide a
comprehensive and systematic overview of all relevant approaches currently in use
to realize practical single photon imagers. In all of these devices, three major tasks
have to be accomplished: (1) incoming photons must enter the detector, where
they are converted into electronic charge; (2) this photogenerated charge must be
collected and possibly amplified at the same time; and (3) the collected charge must
be detected with suitable electronic circuitry.
In all these steps, one has to fight thermally generated noise: The photogeneration
process competes with dark noise charge generation in the conversion layer; in the
photocharge collection and amplification process, signal charges must be handled
while avoiding the detrimental effects of thermally generated charge carriers; finally,
the first stages of any electronic charge detection circuitry suffers from thermally
generated Johnson noise in the channel of transistors or in resistors. Depending
on the boundary conditions of a photodetection problem – for example, the
v
vi
Preface
photosensitive area, the response time, the mean detection rate, the exposure time,
the frame rate, the spectral distribution of the radiation, the operating temperature,
and the power consumption – a different technological approach will come out as
an optimum. For this reason, the present book provides a theoretical and practical
framework, where researchers and practitioners will find in condensed form all
relevant information to resolve their particular single photon imaging solution.
In Chap. 1, relevant fundamental concepts for treating noise phenomena in
optoelectronics are summarized, and a rigorous definition of the precise meaning
of “single photon imaging” is given. State-of-the-art semiconductor technology
especially suited for ultra-low-noise image sensing is presented in Chap. 2. The use
of photocathodes in vacuum for single photon imaging is treated in several chapters:
in Chap. 3, the charge multiplication processes is implemented with avalanche
photodiode (APD) arrays; in Chap. 4, the photoelectrons are accelerated to a high
voltage, and their bombardment of semiconductor imagers causes a large number
of secondary electrons being created in the image sensor; in Chap. 5, a suitable
geometry of several electrodes, each multiplying the incident electron packets by a
factor, provides for photocharge multiplication of up to factor of one million. It is
also possible to exploit the avalanche effect in semiconductors, without having to
use vacuum devices. In Chap. 6, the avalanche effect is used in so-called electron-
multiplying charge-coupled devices (EMCCDs), while Chap. 7 describes CMOS
compatible semiconductor image sensors for single-photon avalanche detection
(SPADs). In synchronous applications, where one samples the images at regular
times while accumulating photogenerated charges between samples, it is possible
to realize single photon CMOS imagers through systematic bandpass filtering,
exploiting the parallelisms possible in CMOS imagers; this approach to single
photon imaging is described in detail in Chap. 8, and the complementary Chap. 9
treats suitable architectures for the implementation of such single photon CMOS
imagers. If one is not constrained to use standard CMOS processes, an interesting
class of structures, called double-gate transistors and charge modulating devices
(CMDs), make it possible to sense individual electrons with very high conversion
gains of several 100 V per electron, as described in Chap. 10. The case of high-
energy photons (UV and X-ray radiation) arriving at arbitrary times is treated
in Chap. 11, showing the way to efficient, energy-sensitive X-ray single photon
imagers implemented with standard CMOS processes. Each of the last three chap-
ters describes an important practical application in which single photon imaging is
a key capability: in Chap. 12, optical time-of-flight range imaging is covered, with
which complete 3D images of a scene can be acquired with millimeter resolution
in real time. Astronomical and aerospace applications in which single photon
imagers are essential are presented in Chap. 13. Finally, Chap. 14 describes a highly
relevant application of gated ultra-low-noise imagers in the life sciences, namely
very sensitive and highly specific pharmaceutical and medical diagnostics through
time-resolved fluorescence imaging.
No panacea exists yet for the practical and economical solution of the many
single photon imaging problems in the world, ranging from fundamental scientific
research to the availability of cell phone cameras with which brilliant pictures can
Preface
vii
be taken also under extreme low-light conditions. Finding a solution still requires
skillfully elaborating a good technological compromise. If the authors of this book
have achieved their goal of providing a useful and powerful tool to many engineers
and researchers in the wide field of image science, then our ambition has been
fulfilled and the efforts of all involved colleagues have been worthwhile.
We would like to express our sincere thanks to the authors of the various chapters
for their kindness and willingness to contribute to this book, for their hard work
required in actually carrying through with the promise, and for their determination to
meet all the deadlines revising and updating their chapters, with the goal to provide
the most valuable and up-to-date contributions.
Landquart
Delft
March 2011
Peter Seitz
Albert Theuwissen
•
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