RF Components and Circuits.pdf

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Foreword

Remembering Joe Carr, K4IPV

Preface

Part 1 Introduction

1 Introduction to radio frequencies

What are the 'radio frequencies'?

Why are radio frequencies different?

What this book covers

2 Signals and noise

Types of signals

Static and quasistatic signals

Periodic signals

Repetitive signals

Transient signals and pulse signals

Fourier series

Waveform symmetry

Transient signals

Sampled signals

Noise

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or Sn)

Noise factor, noise figure and noise temperature

Noise factor (FN)

Noise figure (NF)

Noise temperature ( Te)

Noise in cascade amplifiers

Noise reduction strategies

Noise reduction by signal averaging

Example

3 Radio receivers

Signals, noise and reception

The reception problem

Strategies

Radio receiver specifications

Origins

Crystal video receivers

Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receivers

Superheterodyne receivers

Heterodyning

Front-end circuits

Intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier

Detector

Audio amplifiers

Receiver performance factors

Units of measure

Input signal voltage

dBm

dBmV

Noise

Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or Sn)

Receiver noise floor

Static measures of receiver performance

Sensitivity

Selectivity

Front-end bandwidth

Image rejection

1st IF rejection

IF bandwidth

IF passband shape factor

Distant frequency ('ultimate') rejection

Stability

AGC range and threshold

Dynamic performance

Intermodulation products

-1 dB compression point

Third-order intercept point

Dynamic range

Blocking

Cross-modulation

Reciprocal mixing

IF notch rejection

Internal spurii

Part 2 Circuits

4 RF amplifiers

Noise and preselectors/preamplifiers

Amplifier configurations

Transistor gain

Classification by common element

Common emitter circuits

Common collector circuits

Common base circuits

Transistor biasing

Collector-to-base bias

Emitter bias or Îself-biasÌ

Frequency characteristics

JFET and MOSFET connections

JFET preselector

VHF receiver preselector

MOSFET preselector

Voltage-tuned receiver preselector

Broadband RF preamplifier for VLF, LF and AM BCB

Push-pull RF amplifiers

Types of push-pull RF amplifiers

Actual circuit details

Broadband RF amplifier (50 ohm input and output)

5 Mixers

Linear-vs-non-linear mixers

Simple diode mixer

The question of ÎbalanceÌ

Unbalanced mixers

Single balanced mixers

Double balanced mixers

Spurious responses

Image

Half IF

IF feedthrough

High-order spurs

LO harmonic spurs

LO noise spurs

Mixer distortion products

Third-order intercept point

Calculating intercept points

Mixer losses

Noise figure

Noise balance

Single-ended active mixer circuits

Balanced active mixers

Gilbert cell mixers

Passive double-balanced mixers

Diplexers

Bandpass diplexers

Double DBM

Image reject mixers

VHF/UHF microwave mixer circuits

6 Oscillators

Feedback oscillators

General types of RF oscillator circuits

Piezoelectric crystals

Piezoelectricity

Equivalent circuit

Crystal packaging

Temperature performance

Room temperature crystal oscillators

Temperature-compensated crystal oscillators

Oven-controlled crystal oscillators

Short-term stability

Long-term stability

Miller oscillators

Pierce oscillators

Butler oscillators

Colpitts oscillators

Overtone oscillators

Frequency stability

Temperature

Thermal isolation

Avoid self-heating

Other stability criteria

Use low frequencies

Feedback level

Output isolation

DC power supply

Vibration isolation

Coil core selection

Coil-core processing

Air core coils

Capacitor selection

Tempco circuit

Varactors

Frequency synthesizers

Reference section

Frequency synthesizer section

Output section

Automatic level control (ALC)

7 IF amplifiers and filters

IF filters: general filter theory

LÒ C IF filters

Crystal filters

Crystal ladder filters

Monolithic ceramic crystal filters

Mechanical filters

SAW filters

Filter switching in IF amplifiers

Amplifier circuits

Cascode pair amplifier

ÎUniversal’ IF amplifier

Coupling to block filters

More IC IF amplifiers

MC-1590 circuit

SL560C circuits

FM IF amplifier

Successive detection logarithmic amplifiers

8 Demodulators

AM envelope detectors

AM noise

Synchronous AM demodulation

Double sideband (DSBSC) and single sideband (SSBSC) suppressed carrier demodulators

Phasing method

FM and PM demodulator circuits

FosterÒ Seeley discriminator

Ratio detector

Pulse counting detector

Phase-locked loop FM/PM detectors

Quadrature detector

Part 3 Components

9 Capacitors

Units of capacitance

Breakdown voltage

Circuit symbols for capacitors

Fixed capacitors

Paper dielectric capacitors

Mylar dielectric capacitors

Ceramic dielectric capacitors

Mica dielectric capacitors

Other capacitors

Variable capacitors

Air variable main tuning capacitors

Capacitor tuning laws Ò SLC-vs-SLF

Special variable capacitors

Split stator capacitors

Differential capacitors

ÎTransmittingÌ variable capacitors

Variable capacitor cleaning note

Using and stabilizing a varactor diode

Varactor tuning circuits

Temperature compensation

Varactor applications

10 Inductors

Inductor circuit symbols

Inductance and inductors

Inductance of a single straight wire

Combining two or more inductors

Air-core inductors

Solenoid wound air-core inductors

Adjustable coils

Winding your own coils

Amidon Associates coil system

Using ferrite and powdered iron cores

Materials used in cores

Powdered iron

Ferrite materials

Making the calculations

Toroid cores

Example

Inductors and transformers

Broadband RF transformers

Winding toroid cores

Counting turns

Winding styles

Stabilizing the windings

Mounting toroids

Mounting multiple coils

Special mounting methods

High-power transformers

Binocular cores

Turns counting on binocular cores

Winding styles on binocular cores

Winding a binocular core

Ferrite rods

Bobbing along with a bobbin

Ferrite beads

Mounting ferrite beads

11 Tuning and matching

Vectors for RF circuits

LÒ C resonant tank circuits

Series resonant circuits

Parallel resonant circuits

Tuned RF/IF transformers

Construction of RF/IF transformers

Bandwidth of RF/IF transformers

Choosing component values for L– C resonant tank circuits

The tracking problem

The RF amplifier/antenna tuner problem

Example

The local oscillator (LO) problem

Trimmer capacitor method

Impedance matching in RF circuits

Transformer matching

Resonant transformers

Resonant networks

Inverse-L network

-network

Split-capacitor network

Transistor-to-transistor impedance matching

12 Splitters and hybrids

RF power combiners and splitters

Characteristics of splitter/combiner circuits

Resistive splitter/combiner

Transformer splitter/combiner

How it works

Mismatch losses

Modified VSWR bridge splitter/combiner

90 degree splitter/combiner

Transmission line splitter/combiners

90 degree transmission line splitter/combiner

Hybrid ring Îrat-raceÌ network

RF hybrid couplers

Applications of hybrids

Combining signal sources

Bi-directional amplifiers

Transmitter/receiver isolation

Quadrature hybrids

RF directional couplers

Conclusion

13 Monolithic microwave integrated circuits

Internal circuitry

Basic amplifier circuit

Other MAR-x circuits

Multiple device circuits

Mast-mounted wideband preamplifier

Broadband HF amplifier

Part 4 Measurement and techniques

14 Measuring inductors and capacitors

VSWR method

Voltage divider method

Signal generator method

Frequency shifted oscillator method

Using RF bridges

Maxwell bridge

Hay bridge

Schering bridge

Finding parasitic capacitances and inductances

Conclusion

15 RF power measurement

Power units

Types of RF power measurement

Methods for measuring RF power

Thermistor RF power meters

Bolometers

Self-balancing bridge instruments

Thermocouple RF power meters

Diode detector RF power meters

Circuits

Practical in-line bridge circuits

Micromatch

Monomatch

The Bird Thruline sensor

Calorimeters

Substitution flow calorimeters

Absolute flow calorimeters

Micropower and low power measurements

Error and uncertainty sources

Mismatch loss and mismatch uncertainty

16 Filtering against EMI/ RFI

Shielding

Filter circuits

RÒ C EMI/RFI protection

Feedthrough capacitors

General guidelines

17 Noise cancellation bridges

A simple bridge circuit

Bibliography

Index

RF Components and Circuits

RF Components and Circuits Joseph J. Carr Newnes OXFORD AMSTERDAM BOSTON LONDON NEW YORK PARIS SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO SINGAPORE SYDNEY TOKYO

Newnes An imprint of Elsevier Science Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041 First edition 2002 Copyright © Joseph J. Carr and Elsevier Science Ltd 2002. All rights reserved The right of Joseph J. Carr to be identified as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1T 4LP. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0 7506 48449 Published in conjunction with Radio Society of Great Britain, Lambda House, Cranborne Road, Potters Bar, Herts, EN6 3JE. UK www.rsgb.org.uk For information on all Newnes publications visit our website at: newnespress.com Cover illustration supplied by Coilcraft Europe Ltd Composition by Genesis Typesetting, Rochester, Kent Printed and bound in Great Britain

Foreword ................................................................... ................................. Remembering Joe Carr, K4IPV Preface ....................................................................... Part 1 Introduction 1 Introduction to radio frequencies What are the ’radio frequencies’? Why are radio frequencies different? What this book covers 2 Signals and noise Types of signals Static and quasistatic signals Periodic signals Repetitive signals Transient signals and pulse signals Fourier series Waveform symmetry Transient signals Sampled signals Noise Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or Sn) Noise factor, noise figure and noise temperature .................................................... .......................... .................................. ............................. .................................................... .................................................... ............................................................. ........................................... ................................................................ ............................................................. ................................. ................................................................. ...................................................... ............................................................ ............................................................. .............................................................................. ................................... .......... .............................................................. .............................................................. ................................................... ........................................... .............................................. .............................. ......................................................................... ....................................................... .......................................... ................................................... ....................................................................... ......................................... ............................................................................ ..................................................... ........................... Signals, noise and reception The reception problem Strategies Radio receiver specifications Origins Noise in cascade amplifiers Noise reduction strategies Noise reduction by signal averaging Example Crystal video receivers Tuned radio frequency (TRF) receivers Noise factor (FN) Noise figure (NF) Noise temperature ( Te) 3 Radio receivers ? ? ? 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 9 9 11 17 18 21 27 29 29 30 30 31 31 32 32 3 3 35 37 38 38 3.4 3.4

Superheterodyne receivers Heterodyning Front-end circuits Intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier Detector Audio amplifiers Receiver performance factors Units of measure Input signal voltage dBm dBmV dB V Noise Signal-to-noise ratio (SNR or Sn) Receiver noise floor Static measures of receiver performance Sensitivity Selectivity ............................................ .................................................................... .............................................................. ............................... ............................................................................ ................................................................ ........................................ ............................................................ .......................................................... .................................................................................. ................................................................................ ..................................................................................... ....................................................................................... .............................................................................. ................................... ....................................................... ...................... ....................................................................... ....................................................................... ........................................................ ................................................................. .................................................................. ..................................................................... ................................................. ............................. ........................................................................... .............................................. .................................................... ................................................ ................................................ .............................................. ............................................................... .......................................................................... ........................................................... ........................................................... ............................................................ .................................................................. Stability AGC range and threshold Dynamic performance Intermodulation products -1 dB compression point Third-order intercept point Dynamic range Blocking Cross-modulation Reciprocal mixing IF notch rejection Internal spurii Front-end bandwidth Image rejection 1st IF rejection IF bandwidth IF passband shape factor Distant frequency (’ultimate’) rejection Part 2 Circuits ........................................................... ........................................................... ............................. Noise and preselectors/preamplifiers 4 RF amplifiers 3.4 42 44 44 44 44 44 45 45 45 46 46 46 46 46 47 47 47 50 52 53 54 54 55 57 57 58 58 59 60 60 62 63 63 64 64 65 2 4 70

Types of push-pull RF amplifiers Actual circuit details Broadband RF amplifier (50 ohm input and output) 5 Mixers Common emitter circuits Common collector circuits Common base circuits Transistor biasing Amplifier configurations Transistor gain Classification by common element Collector-to-base bias Emitter bias or ˛self-bias Frequency characteristics JFET and MOSFET connections JFET preselector VHF receiver preselector MOSFET preselector Voltage-tuned receiver preselector Broadband RF preamplifier for VLF, LF and AM BCB Push-pull RF amplifiers .................................................. ............................................................... ................................. ................................................... ................................................ ...................................................... ........................................................... ...................................................... .................................................. .............................................. ................................... ............................................................ ............................................... ..................................................... ................................ ... .................................................. ...................................... .......................................................... ....... ....................................................................... ............................................ ......................................................... ............................................... ........................................................... .................................................... ................................................... ....................................................... ............................................................................... ............................................................................... .................................................................. ............................................................... ........................................................... ................................................................. ................................................ .............................................. ............................................ ................................................................... .................................................................... ................................................................ .................................. Mixer distortion products Third-order intercept point Calculating intercept points Mixer losses Noise figure Noise balance Single-ended active mixer circuits Linear-vs-non-linear mixers Simple diode mixer The question of ˛balance Unbalanced mixers Single balanced mixers Double balanced mixers Spurious responses Image Half IF IF feedthrough High-order spurs LO harmonic spurs LO noise spurs 70 70 72 72 73 73 73 74 74 75 75 76 79 79 81 81 84 84 86 88 5.1 5.1 94 95 95 95 95 95 95 96 96 97 98 98 98 99 101 101 102 102 103

6 Oscillators Feedback oscillators General types of RF oscillator circuits Piezoelectric crystals Piezoelectricity Equivalent circuit Crystal packaging Temperature performance Room temperature crystal oscillators Temperature-compensated crystal oscillators Oven-controlled crystal oscillators Short-term stability Long-term stability Balanced active mixers Gilbert cell mixers Passive double-balanced mixers Diplexers Bandpass diplexers Double DBM Image reject mixers VHF/UHF microwave mixer circuits .................................................. ........................................................... ................................... ........................................................................ ........................................................ ................................................................... ........................................................ ............................... ................................................................ ...................................................... ............................ ...................................................... ................................................................. .............................................................. ............................................................. ............................................. ............................... .................. .................................... ........................................................... ............................................................ .............................................................. ............................................................ ............................................................. .......................................................... ....................................................... ......................................................... ................................................................... .............................................................. ............................................................. ..................................................... ......................................................... ................................................................. ................................................................ .............................................................. ............................................................. ............................................................ ......................................................... ..................................................................... ........................................................... .................................................................. Miller oscillators Pierce oscillators Butler oscillators Colpitts oscillators Overtone oscillators Frequency stability Temperature Thermal isolation Avoid self-heating Other stability criteria Use low frequencies Feedback level Output isolation DC power supply Vibration isolation Coil core selection Coil-core processing Air core coils Capacitor selection Tempco circuit 104 113 114 116 117 5.36 5.36 124 6 6 126 128 129 129 129 133 133 133 133 134 134 134 136 138 143 145 147 149 149 150 150 150 150 150 150 153 153 153 154 154 155

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