Understanding the Linux Kernel.pdf

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Understanding the Linux Kernel, 3rd Edition

Table of Contents

Preface

The Audience for This Book

Organization of the Material

Level of Description

Overview of the Book

Background Information

Conventions in This Book

How to Contact Us

Safari® Enabled

Acknowledgments

Chapter 1. Introduction

Section 1.1. Linux Versus Other Unix-Like Kernels

Section 1.2. Hardware Dependency

Section 1.3. Linux Versions

Section 1.4. Basic Operating System Concepts

Section 1.5. An Overview of the Unix Filesystem

Section 1.6. An Overview of Unix Kernels

Chapter 2. Memory Addressing

Section 2.1. Memory Addresses

Section 2.2. Segmentation in Hardware

Section 2.3. Segmentation in Linux

Section 2.4. Paging in Hardware

Section 2.5. Paging in Linux

Chapter 3. Processes

Section 3.1. Processes, Lightweight Processes, and Threads

Section 3.2. Process Descriptor

Section 3.3. Process Switch

Section 3.4. Creating Processes

Section 3.5. Destroying Processes

Chapter 4. Interrupts and Exceptions

Section 4.1. The Role of Interrupt Signals

Section 4.2. Interrupts and Exceptions

Section 4.3. Nested Execution of Exception and Interrupt Handlers

Section 4.4. Initializing the Interrupt Descriptor Table

Section 4.5. Exception Handling

Section 4.6. Interrupt Handling

Section 4.7. Softirqs and Tasklets

Section 4.8. Work Queues

Section 4.9. Returning from Interrupts and Exceptions

Chapter 5. Kernel Synchronization

Section 5.1. How the Kernel Services Requests

Section 5.2. Synchronization Primitives

Section 5.3. Synchronizing Accesses to Kernel Data Structures

Section 5.4. Examples of Race Condition Prevention

Chapter 6. Timing Measurements

Section 6.1. Clock and Timer Circuits

Section 6.2. The Linux Timekeeping Architecture

Section 6.3. Updating the Time and Date

Section 6.4. Updating System Statistics

Section 6.5. Software Timers and Delay Functions

Section 6.6. System Calls Related to Timing Measurements

Chapter 7. Process Scheduling

Section 7.1. Scheduling Policy

Section 7.2. The Scheduling Algorithm

Section 7.3. Data Structures Used by the Scheduler

Section 7.4. Functions Used by the Scheduler

Section 7.5. Runqueue Balancing in Multiprocessor Systems

Section 7.6. System Calls Related to Scheduling

Chapter 8. Memory Management

Section 8.1. Page Frame Management

Section 8.2. Memory Area Management

Section 8.3. Noncontiguous Memory Area Management

Chapter 9. Process Address Space

Section 9.1. The Process's Address Space

Section 9.2. The Memory Descriptor

Section 9.3. Memory Regions

Section 9.4. Page Fault Exception Handler

Section 9.5. Creating and Deleting a Process Address Space

Section 9.6. Managing the Heap

Chapter 10. System Calls

Section 10.1. POSIX APIs and System Calls

Section 10.2. System Call Handler and Service Routines

Section 10.3. Entering and Exiting a System Call

Section 10.4. Parameter Passing

Section 10.5. Kernel Wrapper Routines

Chapter 11. Signals

Section 11.1. The Role of Signals

Section 11.2. Generating a Signal

Section 11.3. Delivering a Signal

Section 11.4. System Calls Related to Signal Handling

Chapter 12. The Virtual Filesystem

Section 12.1. The Role of the Virtual Filesystem (VFS)

Section 12.2. VFS Data Structures

Section 12.3. Filesystem Types

Section 12.4. Filesystem Handling

Section 12.5. Pathname Lookup

Section 12.6. Implementations of VFS System Calls

Section 12.7. File Locking

Chapter 13. I/O Architecture and Device Drivers

Section 13.1. I/O Architecture

Section 13.2. The Device Driver Model

Section 13.3. Device Files

Section 13.4. Device Drivers

Section 13.5. Character Device Drivers

Chapter 14. Block Device Drivers

Section 14.1. Block Devices Handling

Section 14.2. The Generic Block Layer

Section 14.3. The I/O Scheduler

Section 14.4. Block Device Drivers

Section 14.5. Opening a Block Device File

Chapter 15. The Page Cache

Section 15.1. The Page Cache

Section 15.2. Storing Blocks in the Page Cache

Section 15.3. Writing Dirty Pages to Disk

Section 15.4. The sync( ), fsync( ), and fdatasync( ) System Calls

Chapter 16. Accessing Files

Section 16.1. Reading and Writing a File

Section 16.2. Memory Mapping

Section 16.3. Direct I/O Transfers

Section 16.4. Asynchronous I/O

Chapter 17. Page Frame Reclaiming

Section 17.1. The Page Frame Reclaiming Algorithm

Section 17.2. Reverse Mapping

Section 17.3. Implementing the PFRA

Section 17.4. Swapping

Chapter 18. The Ext2 and Ext3 Filesystems

Section 18.1. General Characteristics of Ext2

Section 18.2. Ext2 Disk Data Structures

Section 18.3. Ext2 Memory Data Structures

Section 18.4. Creating the Ext2 Filesystem

Section 18.5. Ext2 Methods

Section 18.6. Managing Ext2 Disk Space

Section 18.7. The Ext3 Filesystem

Chapter 19. Process Communication

Section 19.1. Pipes

Section 19.2. FIFOs

Section 19.3. System V IPC

Section 19.4. POSIX Message Queues

Chapter 20. Program ExZecution

Section 20.1. Executable Files

Section 20.2. Executable Formats

Section 20.3. Execution Domains

Section 20.4. The exec Functions

Appendix A. System Startup

Section A.1. Prehistoric Age: the BIOS

Section A.2. Ancient Age: the Boot Loader

Section A.3. Middle Ages: the setup( ) Function

Section A.4. Renaissance: the startup_32( ) Functions

Section A.5. Modern Age: the start_kernel( ) Function

Appendix B. Modules

Section B.1. To Be (a Module) or Not to Be?

Section B.2. Module Implementation

Section B.3. Linking and Unlinking Modules

Section B.4. Linking Modules on Demand

Bibliography

Books on Unix Kernels

Books on the Linux Kernel

Books on PC Architecture and Technical Manuals on Intel Microprocessors

Other Online Documentation Sources

Research Papers Related to Linux Development

About the Authors

Colophon

Index

Understanding the Linux Kernel, 3rd Edition Understanding the Linux Kernel, 3rd Edition By Daniel P. Bovet, Marco Cesati By Daniel P. Bovet, Marco Cesati ............................................... ............................................... Publisher: O'Reilly Publisher: O'Reilly Pub Date: November 2005 Pub Date: November 2005 ISBN: 0-596-00565-2 ISBN: 0-596-00565-2 Pages: 942 Pages: 942 Table of Contents | Index Table of Contents | Index In order to thoroughly understand what makes Linux tick and why it works so well on a wide In order to thoroughly understand what makes Linux tick and why it works so well on a wide variety of systems, you need to delve deep into the heart of the kernel. The kernel handles all variety of systems, you need to delve deep into the heart of the kernel. The kernel handles all interactions between the CPU and the external world, and determines which programs will share interactions between the CPU and the external world, and determines which programs will share processor time, in what order. It manages limited memory so well that hundreds of processes can processor time, in what order. It manages limited memory so well that hundreds of processes can share the system efficiently, and expertly organizes data transfers so that the CPU isn't kept share the system efficiently, and expertly organizes data transfers so that the CPU isn't kept waiting any longer than necessary for the relatively slow disks. waiting any longer than necessary for the relatively slow disks. The third edition of Understanding the Linux Kernel takes you on a guided tour of the most The third edition of Understanding the Linux Kernel takes you on a guided tour of the most significant data structures, algorithms, and programming tricks used in the kernel. Probing beyond significant data structures, algorithms, and programming tricks used in the kernel. Probing beyond superficial features, the authors offer valuable insights to people who want to know how things superficial features, the authors offer valuable insights to people who want to know how things really work inside their machine. Important Intel-specific features are discussed. Relevant really work inside their machine. Important Intel-specific features are discussed. Relevant segments of code are dissected line by line. But the book covers more than just the functioning of segments of code are dissected line by line. But the book covers more than just the functioning of the code; it explains the theoretical underpinnings of why Linux does things the way it does. the code; it explains the theoretical underpinnings of why Linux does things the way it does. This edition of the book covers Version 2.6, which has seen significant changes to nearly every This edition of the book covers Version 2.6, which has seen significant changes to nearly every kernel subsystem, particularly in the areas of memory management and block devices. The book kernel subsystem, particularly in the areas of memory management and block devices. The book focuses on the following topics: focuses on the following topics: Memory management, including file buffering, process swapping, and Direct memory Access Memory management, including file buffering, process swapping, and Direct memory Access (DMA) (DMA) The Virtual Filesystem layer and the Second and Third Extended Filesystems The Virtual Filesystem layer and the Second and Third Extended Filesystems Process creation and scheduling Process creation and scheduling Signals, interrupts, and the essential interfaces to device drivers Signals, interrupts, and the essential interfaces to device drivers Timing Timing Synchronization within the kernel Synchronization within the kernel Interprocess Communication (IPC) Interprocess Communication (IPC) Program execution Program execution Understanding the Linux Kernel will acquaint you with all the inner workings of Linux, but it's more Understanding the Linux Kernel will acquaint you with all the inner workings of Linux, but it's more than just an academic exercise. You'll learn what conditions bring out Linux's best performance, than just an academic exercise. You'll learn what conditions bring out Linux's best performance, and you'll see how it meets the challenge of providing good system response during process and you'll see how it meets the challenge of providing good system response during process scheduling, file access, and memory management in a wide variety of environments. This book will scheduling, file access, and memory management in a wide variety of environments. This book will help you make the most of your Linux system. help you make the most of your Linux system.

Understanding the Linux Kernel, 3rd Edition By Daniel P. Bovet, Marco Cesati ............................................... Publisher: O'Reilly Pub Date: November 2005 ISBN: 0-596-00565-2 Pages: 942 Table of Contents | Index The Audience for This Book Organization of the Material Level of Description Overview of the Book Background Information Conventions in This Book How to Contact Us Safari® Enabled Acknowledgments Section 1.1. Linux Versus Other Unix-Like Kernels Section 1.2. Hardware Dependency Section 1.3. Linux Versions Section 1.4. Basic Operating System Concepts Section 1.5. An Overview of the Unix Filesystem Section 1.6. An Overview of Unix Kernels Copyright Preface Chapter 1. Introduction Chapter 2. Memory Addressing Section 2.1. Memory Addresses Section 2.2. Segmentation in Hardware Section 2.3. Segmentation in Linux Section 2.4. Paging in Hardware Section 2.5. Paging in Linux Chapter 3. Processes Section 3.1. Processes, Lightweight Processes, and Threads Section 3.2. Process Descriptor Section 3.3. Process Switch Section 3.4. Creating Processes Section 3.5. Destroying Processes Chapter 4. Interrupts and Exceptions Chapter 5. Kernel Synchronization Section 4.1. The Role of Interrupt Signals Section 4.2. Interrupts and Exceptions Section 4.3. Nested Execution of Exception and Interrupt Handlers Section 4.4. Initializing the Interrupt Descriptor Table Section 4.5. Exception Handling Section 4.6. Interrupt Handling Section 4.7. Softirqs and Tasklets Section 4.8. Work Queues Section 4.9. Returning from Interrupts and Exceptions

Section 5.1. How the Kernel Services Requests Section 5.2. Synchronization Primitives Section 5.3. Synchronizing Accesses to Kernel Data Structures Section 5.4. Examples of Race Condition Prevention Section 8.1. Page Frame Management Section 8.2. Memory Area Management Section 8.3. Noncontiguous Memory Area Management Section 9.1. The Process's Address Space Section 9.2. The Memory Descriptor Section 9.3. Memory Regions Section 9.4. Page Fault Exception Handler Section 9.5. Creating and Deleting a Process Address Space Section 9.6. Managing the Heap Section 6.1. Clock and Timer Circuits Section 6.2. The Linux Timekeeping Architecture Section 6.3. Updating the Time and Date Section 6.4. Updating System Statistics Section 6.5. Software Timers and Delay Functions Section 6.6. System Calls Related to Timing Measurements Chapter 6. Timing Measurements Chapter 7. Process Scheduling Section 7.1. Scheduling Policy Section 7.2. The Scheduling Algorithm Section 7.3. Data Structures Used by the Scheduler Section 7.4. Functions Used by the Scheduler Section 7.5. Runqueue Balancing in Multiprocessor Systems Section 7.6. System Calls Related to Scheduling Chapter 8. Memory Management Chapter 9. Process Address Space Chapter 10. System Calls Chapter 11. Signals Chapter 12. The Virtual Filesystem Chapter 13. I/O Architecture and Device Drivers Section 12.1. The Role of the Virtual Filesystem (VFS) Section 12.2. VFS Data Structures Section 12.3. Filesystem Types Section 12.4. Filesystem Handling Section 12.5. Pathname Lookup Section 12.6. Implementations of VFS System Calls Section 12.7. File Locking Section 10.1. POSIX APIs and System Calls Section 10.2. System Call Handler and Service Routines Section 10.3. Entering and Exiting a System Call Section 10.4. Parameter Passing Section 10.5. Kernel Wrapper Routines Section 11.1. The Role of Signals Section 11.2. Generating a Signal Section 11.3. Delivering a Signal Section 11.4. System Calls Related to Signal Handling Section 13.1. I/O Architecture Section 13.2. The Device Driver Model Section 13.3. Device Files Section 13.4. Device Drivers Section 13.5. Character Device Drivers

Section 15.1. The Page Cache Section 15.2. Storing Blocks in the Page Cache Section 15.3. Writing Dirty Pages to Disk Section 15.4. The sync( ), fsync( ), and fdatasync( ) System Calls Section 16.1. Reading and Writing a File Section 16.2. Memory Mapping Section 16.3. Direct I/O Transfers Section 16.4. Asynchronous I/O Section 17.1. The Page Frame Reclaiming Algorithm Section 17.2. Reverse Mapping Section 17.3. Implementing the PFRA Section 17.4. Swapping Section 14.1. Block Devices Handling Section 14.2. The Generic Block Layer Section 14.3. The I/O Scheduler Section 14.4. Block Device Drivers Section 14.5. Opening a Block Device File Section 18.1. General Characteristics of Ext2 Section 18.2. Ext2 Disk Data Structures Section 18.3. Ext2 Memory Data Structures Section 18.4. Creating the Ext2 Filesystem Section 18.5. Ext2 Methods Section 18.6. Managing Ext2 Disk Space Section 18.7. The Ext3 Filesystem Chapter 14. Block Device Drivers Chapter 15. The Page Cache Chapter 16. Accessing Files Chapter 17. Page Frame Reclaiming Chapter 18. The Ext2 and Ext3 Filesystems Chapter 19. Process Communication Chapter 20. Program ExZecution Appendix A. System Startup Appendix B. Modules Bibliography Section 19.1. Pipes Section 19.2. FIFOs Section 19.3. System V IPC Section 19.4. POSIX Message Queues Section 20.1. Executable Files Section 20.2. Executable Formats Section 20.3. Execution Domains Section 20.4. The exec Functions Section A.1. Prehistoric Age: the BIOS Section A.2. Ancient Age: the Boot Loader Section A.3. Middle Ages: the setup( ) Function Section A.4. Renaissance: the startup_32( ) Functions Section A.5. Modern Age: the start_kernel( ) Function Section B.1. To Be (a Module) or Not to Be? Section B.2. Module Implementation Section B.3. Linking and Unlinking Modules Section B.4. Linking Modules on Demand Books on Unix Kernels Books on the Linux Kernel Books on PC Architecture and Technical Manuals on Intel Microprocessors

Other Online Documentation Sources Research Papers Related to Linux Development About the Authors Colophon Index

Understanding the Linux Kernel, Third Edition by Daniel P. Bovet and Marco Cesati Copyright © 2006 O'Reilly Media, Inc. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Published by O'Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472. O'Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online editions are also available for most titles (safari.oreilly.com). For more information, contact our corporate/institutional sales department: (800) 998-9938 or corporate@oreilly.com. Editor: Production Editor: Production Services: Cover Designer: Interior Designer: Printing History: November 2000: December 2002: November 2005: Andy Oram Darren Kelly Amy Parker Edie Freedman David Futato First Edition. Second Edition. Third Edition. Nutshell Handbook, the Nutshell Handbook logo, and the O'Reilly logo are registered trademarks of O'Reilly Media, Inc. The Linux series designations, Understanding the Linux Kernel, Third Edition, the image of a man with a bubble, and related trade dress are trademarks of O'Reilly Media, Inc. Many of the designations used by manufacturers and sellers to distinguish their products are claimed as trademarks. Where those designations appear in this book, and O'Reilly Media, Inc. was aware of a trademark claim, the designations have been printed in caps or initial caps. While every precaution has been taken in the preparation of this book, the publisher and authors assume no responsibility for errors or omissions, or for damages resulting from the use of the information contained herein. ISBN: 0-596-00565-2 [M]

Preface In the spring semester of 1997, we taught a course on operating systems based on Linux 2.0. The idea was to encourage students to read the source code. To achieve this, we assigned term projects consisting of making changes to the kernel and performing tests on the modified version. We also wrote course notes for our students about a few critical features of Linux such as task switching and task scheduling. Out of this work and with a lot of support from our O'Reilly editor Andy Oram came the first edition of Understanding the Linux Kernel at the end of 2000, which covered Linux 2.2 with a few anticipations on Linux 2.4. The success encountered by this book encouraged us to continue along this line. At the end of 2002, we came out with a second edition covering Linux 2.4. You are now looking at the third edition, which covers Linux 2.6. As in our previous experiences, we read thousands of lines of code, trying to make sense of them. After all this work, we can say that it was worth the effort. We learned a lot of things you don't find in books, and we hope we have succeeded in conveying some of this information in the following pages.

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