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Geographic Information Systems and Science 2nd .pdf

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    Geographical Information Systems and Science
    Contents
    Foreword
    Addendum
    Preface
    List of Acronyms and Abbreviations
    I Introduction
    1 Systems, science, and study
    1.1 Introduction: why does GIS matter?
    1.2 Data, information, evidence, knowledge, wisdom
    1.3 The science of problem solving
    1.4 The technology of problem solving
    1.5 The business of GIS
    1.6 GISystems, GIScience, and GIStudies
    1.7 GIS and geography
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    2 A gallery of applications
    2.1 Introduction
    2.2 Science, geography, and applications
    2.3 Representative application areas and their foundations
    2.4 Concluding comments
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    II Principles
    3 Representing geography
    3.1 Introduction
    3.2 Digital representation
    3.3 Representation for what and for whom?
    3.4 The fundamental problem
    3.5 Discrete objects and continuous fields
    3.6 Rasters and vectors
    3.7 The paper map
    3.8 Generalization
    3.9 Conclusion
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    4 The nature of geographic data
    4.1 Introduction
    4.2 The fundamental problem revisited
    4.3 Spatial autocorrelation and scale
    4.4 Spatial sampling
    4.5 Distance decay
    4.6 Measuring distance effects as spatial autocorrelation
    4.7 Establishing dependence in space
    4.8 Taming geographic monsters
    4.9 Induction and deduction and how it all comes together
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    5 Georeferencing
    5.1 Introduction
    5.2 Placenames
    5.3 Postal addresses and postal codes
    5.4 Linear referencing systems
    5.5 Cadasters and the US Public Land Survey System
    5.6 Measuring the Earth: latitude and longitude
    5.7 Projections and coordinates
    5.8 Measuring latitude, longitude, and elevation: GPS
    5.9 Converting georeferences
    5.10 Summary
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    6 Uncertainty
    6.1 Introduction
    6.2 U1: Uncertainty in the conception of geographic phenomena
    6.3 U2: Further uncertainty in the measurement and representation of geographic phenomena
    6.4 U3: Further uncertainty in the analysis of geographic phenomena
    6.5 Consolidation
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    III Techniques
    7 GIS Software
    7.1 Introduction
    7.2 The evolution of GIS software
    7.3 Architecture of GIS software
    7.4 Building GIS software systems
    7.5 GIS software vendors
    7.6 Types of GIS software systems
    7.7 GIS software usage
    7.8 Conclusion
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    8 Geographic data modeling
    8.1 Introduction
    8.2 GIS data models
    8.3 Example of a water-facility object data model
    8.4 Geographic data modeling in practice
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    9 GIS data collection
    9.1 Introduction
    9.2 Primary geographic data capture
    9.3 Secondary geographic data capture
    9.4 Obtaining data from external sources (data transfer)
    9.5 Capturing attribute data
    9.6 Managing a data collection project
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    10 Creating and maintaining geographic databases
    10.1 Introduction
    10.2 Database management systems
    10.3 Storing data in DBMS tables
    10.4 SQL
    10.5 Geographic database types and functions
    10.6 Geographic database design
    10.7 Structuring geographic information
    10.8 Editing and data maintenance
    10.9 Multi-user editing of continuous databases
    10.10 Conclusion
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    11 Distributed GIS
    11.1 Introduction
    11.2 Distributing the data
    11.3 The mobile user
    11.4 Distributing the software: GIServices
    11.5 Prospects
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    IV Analysis
    12 Cartography and map production
    12.1 Introduction
    12.2 Maps and cartography
    12.3 Principles of map design
    12.4 Map series
    12.5 Applications
    12.6 Conclusions
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    13 Geovisualization
    13.1 Introduction: uses, users, messages, and media
    13.2 Geovisualization and spatial query
    13.3 Geovisualization and transformation
    13.4 Immersive interaction and PPGIS
    13.5 Consolidation
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    14 Query, measurement, and transformation
    14.1 Introduction: what is spatial analysis?
    14.2 Queries
    14.3 Measurements
    14.4 Transformations
    14.5 Conclusion
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    15 Descriptive summary, design, and inference
    15.1 More spatial analysis
    15.2 Descriptive summaries
    15.3 Optimization
    15.4 Hypothesis testing
    15.5 Conclusion
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    16 Spatial modeling with GIS
    16.1 Introduction
    16.2 Types of model
    16.3 Technology for modeling
    16.4 Multicriteria methods
    16.5 Accuracy and validity: testing the model
    16.6 Conclusion
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    V Management and Policy
    17 Managing GIS
    17.1 The big picture
    17.2 The process of developing a sustainable GIS
    17.3 Sustaining a GIS – the people and their competences
    17.4 Conclusions
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    18 GIS and management, the Knowledge Economy, and information
    18.1 Are we all in ‘managed businesses’ now?
    18.2 Management is central to the successful use of GIS
    18.3 The Knowledge Economy, knowledge management, and GIS
    18.4 Information, the currency of the Knowledge Economy
    18.5 GIS as a business and as a business stimulant
    18.6 Discussion
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    19 Exploiting GIS assets and navigating constraints
    19.1 GIS and the law
    19.2 GIS people and their skills
    19.3 Availability of ‘core’ geographic information
    19.4 Navigating the constraints
    19.5 Conclusions
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    20 GIS partnerships
    20.1 Introduction
    20.2 Collaborations at the local level
    20.3 Working together at the national level
    20.4 Multi-national collaborations
    20.5 Nationalism, globalization, politics, and GIS
    20.6 Extreme events can change everything
    20.7 Conclusions
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    21 Epilog
    21.1 Introduction
    21.2 A consolidation of some recurring themes
    21.3 Ten ‘grand challenges’ for GIS
    21.4 Conclusions
    Questions for further study
    Further reading
    Index
    Geographical Information Systems and Science 2nd Edition Paul A. Longley University College London, UK Michael F. Goodchild University of California, Santa Barbara, USA David J. Maguire ESRI Inc., Redlands, USA David W. Rhind City University, London, UK
    Geographical Information Systems and Science
    Geographical Information Systems and Science 2nd Edition Paul A. Longley University College London, UK Michael F. Goodchild University of California, Santa Barbara, USA David J. Maguire ESRI Inc., Redlands, USA David W. Rhind City University, London, UK
    Copyright  2005 John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England Telephone (+44) 1243 779777 Email (for orders and customer service enquiries): cs-books@wiley.co.uk Visit our Home Page on www.wiley.com All Rights Reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning or otherwise, except under the terms of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London W1T 4LP, UK, without the permission in writing of the Publisher. Requests to the Publisher should be addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex PO19 8SQ, England, or emailed to permreq@wiley.co.uk, or faxed to (+44) 1243 770620. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the Publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. ESRI Press logo is the trademark of ESRI and is used herein under licence. Main cover image and first box from bottom, courtesy of NASA. Second box, reproduced from Ordnance Survey. Third box, reproduced by permission of National Geographic Maps. Fourth box, reproduced from Ordnance Survey, courtesy @Last. Other Wiley Editorial Offices John Wiley & Sons Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA Jossey-Bass, 989 Market Street, San Francisco, CA 94103-1741, USA Wiley-VCH Verlag GmbH, Boschstr. 12, D-69469 Weinheim, Germany John Wiley & Sons Australia Ltd, 33 Park Road, Milton, Queensland 4064, Australia John Wiley & Sons (Asia) Pte Ltd, 2 Clementi Loop #02-01, Jin Xing Distripark, Singapore 129809 John Wiley & Sons Canada Ltd, 22 Worcester Road, Etobicoke, Ontario, Canada M9W 1L1 Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library ISBN 0-470-87000-1 (HB) ISBN 0-470-87001-X (PB) Typeset in 9/10.5pt Times by Laserwords Private Limited, Chennai, India Printed and bound in Spain by Grafos S.A., Barcelona, Spain This book is printed on acid-free paper responsibly manufactured from sustainable forestry in which at least two trees are planted for each one used for paper production.
    Contents Foreword ix Addendum x Preface xi List of Acronyms and Abbreviations xv I Introduction 1 1 Systems, science, and study 3 1.1 Introduction: why does GIS matter? 4 1.2 Data, information, evidence, knowledge, wisdom 11 1.3 The science of problem solving 13 1.4 The technology of problem solving 16 1.5 The business of GIS 24 1.6 GISystems, GIScience, and GIStudies 28 1.7 GIS and geography 31 Questions for further study 33 Further reading 33 2 A gallery of applications 35 2.1 Introduction 36 2.2 Science, geography, and applications 39 2.3 Representative application areas and their foundations 41 2.4 Concluding comments 60 Questions for further study 60 Further reading 60 II Principles 61 3 Representing geography 63 3.1 Introduction 64 3.2 Digital representation 65 3.3 Representation for what and for whom? 67 3.4 The fundamental problem 68 3.5 Discrete objects and continuous fields 70 3.6 Rasters and vectors 74 3.7 The paper map 76 3.8 Generalization 80 3.9 Conclusion 82 Questions for further study 83 Further reading 83 4 The nature of geographic data 85 4.1 Introduction 86 4.2 The fundamental problem revisited 86 4.3 Spatial autocorrelation and scale 87 4.4 Spatial sampling 90 4.5 Distance decay 93 4.6 Measuring distance effects as spatial autocorrelation 95 4.7 Establishing dependence in space 101 4.8 Taming geographic monsters 104 4.9 Induction and deduction and how it all comes together 106 Questions for further study 107 Further reading 107 5 Georeferencing 109 5.1 Introduction 110 5.2 Placenames 112 5.3 Postal addresses and postal codes 113 5.4 Linear referencing systems 114 5.5 Cadasters and the US Public Land Survey System 114 5.6 Measuring the Earth: latitude and longitude 115 5.7 Projections and coordinates 117 5.8 Measuring latitude, longitude, and elevation: GPS 122 5.9 Converting georeferences 123 v
    vi CONTENTS 5.10 Summary 125 Questions for further study 126 Further reading 126 6 Uncertainty 127 6.1 Introduction 128 6.2 U1: Uncertainty in the conception of geographic phenomena 129 6.3 U2: Further uncertainty in the measurement and representation of geographic phenomena 136 6.4 U3: Further uncertainty in the analysis of geographic phenomena 144 6.5 Consolidation 152 Questions for further study 153 Further reading 153 III Techniques 155 7 GIS Software 157 7.1 Introduction 158 7.2 The evolution of GIS software 158 7.3 Architecture of GIS software 159 7.4 Building GIS software systems 165 7.5 GIS software vendors 165 7.6 Types of GIS software systems 167 7.7 GIS software usage 174 7.8 Conclusion 174 Questions for further study 174 Further reading 175 8 Geographic data modeling 177 9 GIS data collection 199 9.1 Introduction 200 9.2 Primary geographic data capture 201 9.3 Secondary geographic data capture 205 9.4 Obtaining data from external sources (data transfer) 211 9.5 Capturing attribute data 215 9.6 Managing a data collection project 215 Questions for further study 216 Further reading 216 10 Creating and maintaining geographic databases 217 10.1 Introduction 218 10.2 Database management systems 218 10.3 Storing data in DBMS tables 222 10.4 SQL 225 10.5 Geographic database types and functions 226 10.6 Geographic database design 227 10.7 Structuring geographic information 229 10.8 Editing and data maintenance 235 10.9 Multi-user editing of continuous databases 235 10.10 Conclusion 237 Questions for further study 238 Further reading 239 11 Distributed GIS 241 11.1 Introduction 242 11.2 Distributing the data 244 11.3 The mobile user 250 11.4 Distributing the software: GIServices 257 11.5 Prospects 259 Questions for further study 259 Further reading 259 8.1 Introduction 178 8.2 GIS data models 179 8.3 Example of a water-facility object data model 192 8.4 Geographic data modeling in practice 195 IV Analysis 261 12 Cartography and map production 263 Questions for further study 196 Further reading 197 12.1 Introduction 264 12.2 Maps and cartography 267
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