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Space Antenna Handbook

Space Antenna Handbook Editors William A. Imbriale Jet Propulsion Laboratory, California Institute of Technology, USA Steven (Shichang) Gao Surrey Space Centre, University of Surrey, UK Luigi Boccia University of Calabria, Italy

This edition ﬁrst published 2012 Ó 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd Registered ofﬁce John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester, West Sussex, PO19 8SQ, United Kingdom For details of our global editorial ofﬁces, for customer services and for information about how to apply for permission to reuse the copyright material in this book please see our website at www.wiley.com. The right of the author to be identiﬁed as the author of this work has been asserted in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, except as permitted by the UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988, without the prior permission of the publisher. Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print may not be available in electronic books. Designations used by companies to distinguish their products are often claimed as trademarks. All brand names and product names used in this book are trade names, service marks, trademarks or registered trademarks of their respective owners. The publisher is not associated with any product or vendor mentioned in this book. This publication is designed to provide accurate and authoritative information in regard to the subject matter covered. It is sold on the understanding that the publisher is not engaged in rendering professional services. If professional advice or other expert assistance is required, the services of a competent professional should be sought. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Space antenna handbook/editors, William A. Imbriale, Steven Gao, Luigi Boccia. p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-119-99319-3 (cloth) 1. Antennas (Electronics) 2. Space vehicles–Radio antennas. 3. Artiﬁcial satellites in telecommunication. III. Boccia, Luigi. I. Imbriale, W. A. (William A.) II. Gao, Steven. TK7871.6.S63 2012 629.47 43—dc23 0 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN: 978-1-119-99319-3 Set in 10/12 pt, Times by Thomson Digital, Noida, India 2011046036

Contents Preface Acknowledgments Acronyms Contributors 1 Antenna Basics Luigi Boccia and Olav Breinbjerg Introduction 1.1 1.2 Antenna Performance Parameters Reﬂection Coefﬁcient and Voltage Standing Wave Ratio Radiation Pattern and Coverage Polarization Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power Effective Area Phase Center 1.2.1 1.2.2 Antenna Impedance 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.5 Directivity 1.2.6 Gain and Realized Gain 1.2.7 1.2.8 1.2.9 1.2.10 Bandwidth 1.2.11 Antenna Noise Temperature Basic Antenna Elements 1.3.1 Wire Antennas 1.3.2 Horn Antennas 1.3.3 1.3.4 Helical Antennas Printed Antennas 1.3.5 Reﬂectors 1.3 1.4 Arrays 1.5 1.4.1 Array Conﬁgurations Basic Effects of Antennas in the Space Environment 1.5.1 Multipaction 1.5.2 1.5.3 Outgassing Passive Inter-modulation References xvii xix xxi xxv 1 1 2 2 3 4 6 7 8 8 9 9 9 9 10 10 10 15 17 19 26 28 30 30 31 31 32

vi Contents 2 Space Antenna Modeling Jian Feng Zhang, Xue Wei Ping, Wen Ming Yu, Xiao Yang Zhou, and Tie Jun Cui 2.1 Introduction 2.1.1 Maxwell’s Equations 2.1.2 CEM 2.2 Methods of Antenna Modeling Basic Theory FEM FDTD Method 2.2.1 2.2.2 Method of Moments 2.2.3 2.2.4 Fast Algorithms for Large Space Antenna Modeling 2.3.1 2.3.2 MLFMA 2.3.3 Hierarchical Basis for the FEM Case Studies: Effects of the Satellite Body on the Radiation Patterns of Antennas Summary Introduction 3 System Architectures of Satellite Communication, Radar, Navigation and Remote Sensing 76 Michael A. Thorburn 2.4 2.5 Acknowledgments References 2.3 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.4 36 36 37 37 39 39 40 45 49 54 54 54 62 68 73 73 73 76 76 77 77 77 78 78 78 78 79 79 80 80 80 81 81 81 81 82 82 83 83 84 85 86 87 Fixed Satellite Services Broadcast Satellite Services (Direct Broadcast Services) Introduction Elements of Satellite System Architecture Satellite Missions Communications Satellites 3.4.1 3.4.2 3.4.3 Digital Audio Radio Services 3.4.4 Direct to Home Broadband Services 3.4.5 Mobile Communications Services Radar Satellites 3.5 3.6 Navigational Satellites 3.7 3.8 Architecture of Satellite Command and Control 3.9 Remote Sensing Satellites Bent-Pipe Transponders The Communications Payload Transponder 3.9.1 3.9.2 Digital Transponders 3.9.3 Regenerative Repeater 3.10 Satellite Functional Requirements 3.10.1 Key Performance Concepts: Coverage, Frequency Allocations 3.10.2 Architecture of the Communications Payload 3.10.3 Satellite Communications System Performance Requirements 3.11 The Satellite Link Equation 3.12 The Microwave Transmitter Block 3.12.1 Intercept Point 3.12.2 Output Backoff 3.12.3 The Transmit Antenna and EIRP

3.13 Rx Front-End Block 3.13.1 Noise Figure and Noise Temperature 3.14 Received Power in the Communications System’s RF Link 3.14.1 The Angular Dependencies of the Uplink and Downlink 3.15 Additional Losses in the Satellite and Antenna 3.15.1 Additional Losses due to Propagation Effects and the Atmosphere 3.15.2 Ionospheric Effects – Scintillation and Polarization Rotation 3.16 Thermal Noise and the Antenna Noise Temperature 3.16.1 The Interface between the Antenna and the Communications System 3.16.2 The Uplink Signal to Noise 3.17 The SNR Equation and Minimum Detectable Signal 3.18 Power Flux Density, Saturation Flux Density and Dynamic Range 3.18.1 Important Relationship between PFD and Gain State of the Satellite Transponder 3.19 Full-Duplex Operation and Passive Intermodulation 3.20 Gain and Gain Variation 3.21 Pointing Error 3.22 Remaining Elements of Satellite System Architecture 3.23 Orbits and Orbital Considerations 3.24 Spacecraft Introduction 3.25 Spacecraft Budgets (Mass, Power, Thermal) 3.25.1 Satellite Mass 3.25.2 Satellite Power 3.25.3 Satellite Thermal Dissipation 3.26 Orbital Mission Life and Launch Vehicle Considerations 3.27 Environment Management (Thermal, Radiation) 3.28 Spacecraft Structure (Acoustic/Dynamic) 3.29 Satellite Positioning (Station Keeping) 3.30 Satellite Positioning (Attitude Control) 3.31 Power Subsystem 3.32 Tracking, Telemetry, Command and Monitoring References 4 Space Environment and Materials J. Santiago-Prowald and L. Salghetti Drioli 4.1 4.2 4.3 Introduction The Space Environment of Antennas The Radiation Environment 4.2.1 4.2.2 The Plasma Environment The Neutral Environment 4.2.3 Space Environment for Typical Spacecraft Orbits 4.2.4 Thermal Environment 4.2.5 4.2.6 Launch Environment Selection of Materials in Relation to Their Electromagnetic Properties 4.3.1 4.3.2 4.3.3 Material Selection Golden Rules for PIM Control RF Transparent Materials and Their Use RF Conducting Materials and Their Use Contents vii 88 88 90 91 91 91 93 93 93 94 94 95 95 96 96 97 98 98 100 101 101 101 101 102 102 103 103 104 104 105 105 106 106 106 107 109 110 111 111 113 117 117 117 118

viii Contents 4.4 4.5 Polymer Matrix Composites Ceramics and Ceramic Matrix Composites Space Materials and Manufacturing Processes 4.4.1 Metals and Their Alloys 4.4.2 4.4.3 Characterization of Mechanical and Thermal Behaviour 4.5.1 4.5.2 4.5.3 4.5.4 Thermal Vacuum Environment and Outgassing Screening Fundamental Characterization Tests of Polymers and Composites Characterization of Mechanical Properties Thermal and Thermoelastic Characterization Acknowledgements References 5 Mechanical and Thermal Design of Space Antennas J. Santiago-Prowald and Heiko Ritter 5.1 Introduction: The Mechanical–Thermal–Electrical Triangle 5.1.1 Antenna Product 5.1.2 5.1.3 Conﬁguration, Materials and Processes Review of Requirements and Their Veriﬁcation 5.2 Design of Antenna Structures 5.2.1 5.2.2 5.2.3 5.2.4 Typical Design Solutions for Reﬂectors Structural Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture Thermal Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture Electrical Description of the Sandwich Plate Architecture in Relation to Thermo-mechanical Design 5.3 5.4 5.5 Skins Made of Composite Material Failure Modes of Sandwich Plates Finite Element Analysis First-Order Plate Theory Classical Laminated Plate Theory Structural Modelling and Analysis 5.3.1 5.3.2 Higher Order Plate Theories 5.3.3 5.3.4 Homogeneous Isotropic Plate Versus Symmetric Sandwich Plate 5.3.5 5.3.6 Honeycomb Core Characteristics 5.3.7 5.3.8 Mass Optimization of Sandwich Plate Architecture for Antennas 5.3.9 5.3.10 Acoustic Loads on Antennas Thermal and Thermoelastic Analysis 5.4.1 5.4.2 5.4.3 5.4.4 5.4.5 5.4.6 5.4.7 5.4.8 Thermal Control Strategies 5.5.1 The Thermal Environment of Space Antennas Transverse Thermal Conductance Model of the Sandwich Plate Thermal Balance of the Flat Sandwich Plate Thermal Distortions of a Flat Plate in Space Thermoelastic Stability of an Offset Parabolic Reﬂector Thermal Analysis Tools Thermal Analysis Cases Thermal Model Uncertainty and Margins Requirements and Principal Design Choices 118 118 121 125 127 127 128 130 131 131 131 133 133 134 135 136 136 136 143 143 144 144 145 148 148 149 150 152 152 154 156 159 166 166 167 168 169 171 172 173 173 173 173

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