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Programming Rust FAST, SAFE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT Jim Blandy & Jason Orendorff

Programming Rust Fast, Safe Systems Development Jim Blandy and Jason Orendorff Beijing Beijing Boston Boston Farnham Sebastopol Farnham Sebastopol Tokyo Tokyo

Programming Rust by Jim Blandy and Jason Orendorff Copyright © 2018 Jim Blandy, Jason Orendorff. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North, Sebastopol, CA 95472. O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales promotional use. Online editions are also available for most titles (http://safaribooksonline.com). For more information, contact our corporate/ institutional sales department: 800-998-9938 or corporate@oreilly.com. Editors: Jeff Bleiel Production Editor: Colleen Cole Copyeditor: Jasmine Kwityn Proofreader: Sharon Wilkey Indexer: WordCo Indexing Services, Inc. Interior Designer: David Futato Cover Designer: Karen Montgomery Illustrator: Rebecca Demarest December 2017: First Edition Revision History for the First Edition 2017-11-20: First Release See http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781491927212 for release details. The O’Reilly logo is a registered trademark of O’Reilly Media, Inc. Programming Rust, the cover image, and related trade dress are trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc. While the publisher and the authors have used good faith efforts to ensure that the information and instructions contained in this work are accurate, the publisher and the authors disclaim all responsibility for errors or omissions, including without limitation responsibility for damages resulting from the use of or reliance on this work. Use of the information and instructions contained in this work is at your own risk. If any code samples or other technology this work contains or describes is subject to open source licenses or the intellectual property rights of others, it is your responsibility to ensure that your use thereof complies with such licenses and/or rights. 978-1-491-92728-1 [M]

Table of Contents Preface. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv 1. Why Rust?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1 Type Safety 3 2. A Tour of Rust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 Downloading and Installing Rust 7 A Simple Function 10 Writing and Running Unit Tests 11 Handling Command-Line Arguments 12 A Simple Web Server 17 Concurrency 23 What the Mandelbrot Set Actually Is 24 Parsing Pair Command-Line Arguments 28 Mapping from Pixels to Complex Numbers 31 Plotting the Set 32 Writing Image Files 33 A Concurrent Mandelbrot Program 35 Running the Mandelbrot Plotter 40 Safety Is Invisible 41 3. Basic Types. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43 Machine Types 46 Integer Types 47 Floating-Point Types 50 The bool Type 51 Characters 52 Tuples 54 iii

Pointer Types 55 References 56 Boxes 56 Raw Pointers 57 Arrays, Vectors, and Slices 57 Arrays 58 Vectors 59 Building Vectors Element by Element 62 Slices 62 String Types 64 String Literals 64 Byte Strings 65 Strings in Memory 65 String 67 Using Strings 68 Other String-Like Types 68 Beyond the Basics 69 4. Ownership. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71 Ownership 73 Moves 77 More Operations That Move 82 Moves and Control Flow 84 Moves and Indexed Content 84 Copy Types: The Exception to Moves 86 Rc and Arc: Shared Ownership 90 5. References. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93 References as Values 97 Rust References Versus C++ References 97 Assigning References 98 References to References 99 Comparing References 99 References Are Never Null 100 Borrowing References to Arbitrary Expressions 100 References to Slices and Trait Objects 101 Reference Safety 101 Borrowing a Local Variable 101 Receiving References as Parameters 105 Passing References as Arguments 107 Returning References 107 Structs Containing References 109 iv | Table of Contents

Distinct Lifetime Parameters 111 Omitting Lifetime Parameters 112 Sharing Versus Mutation 114 Taking Arms Against a Sea of Objects 121 6. Expressions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123 An Expression Language 123 Blocks and Semicolons 124 Declarations 126 if and match 127 if let 129 Loops 130 return Expressions 132 Why Rust Has loop 133 Function and Method Calls 134 Fields and Elements 135 Reference Operators 137 Arithmetic, Bitwise, Comparison, and Logical Operators 137 Assignment 138 Type Casts 139 Closures 140 Precedence and Associativity 140 Onward 142 7. Error Handling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Panic 145 Unwinding 146 Aborting 147 Result 148 Catching Errors 148 Result Type Aliases 150 Printing Errors 150 Propagating Errors 152 Working with Multiple Error Types 153 Dealing with Errors That “Can’t Happen” 155 Ignoring Errors 156 Handling Errors in main() 156 Declaring a Custom Error Type 157 Why Results? 158 8. Crates and Modules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Crates 161 Table of Contents | v

Build Profiles 164 Modules 165 Modules in Separate Files 166 Paths and Imports 167 The Standard Prelude 169 Items, the Building Blocks of Rust 170 Turning a Program into a Library 172 The src/bin Directory 174 Attributes 175 Tests and Documentation 178 Integration Tests 180 Documentation 181 Doc-Tests 182 Specifying Dependencies 185 Versions 186 Cargo.lock 187 Publishing Crates to crates.io 188 Workspaces 190 More Nice Things 191 9. Structs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193 Named-Field Structs 193 Tuple-Like Structs 196 Unit-Like Structs 197 Struct Layout 197 Defining Methods with impl 198 Generic Structs 202 Structs with Lifetime Parameters 203 Deriving Common Traits for Struct Types 204 Interior Mutability 205 10. Enums and Patterns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211 Enums 212 Enums with Data 214 Enums in Memory 215 Rich Data Structures Using Enums 216 Generic Enums 218 Patterns 221 Literals, Variables, and Wildcards in Patterns 223 Tuple and Struct Patterns 225 Reference Patterns 226 Matching Multiple Possibilities 229 vi | Table of Contents

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