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硅超大规模集成电路工艺技术——理论、实践与模型(英文版).pdf

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    《硅超大规模集成电路工艺技术——理论、实践与模型》（英文版）
    封面1
    底面
    封面2
    内容简介
    序
    出版说明
    教材出版委员会
    前言（英文）
    目录概览
    目录（英文）
    正文
    Chapter 1 lntroduction and Histerial Perspective
    1.1 Introduction
    1.2 Integrated Circuits and the Planar Process--Key Inventions That Made It All Possible
    1.3 Semiconductors
    1.4 Semiconductor Devices
    1.4.1 PN Diodes
    1.4.2 MOS Transistors
    1.4.3 Bipolar Junction Transistors
    1.5 Semiconductor Technology Families
    1.6 Modern Scientific Discovery-Experiments Theory, and Computer Simulation
    1.7 The Plan For This Book
    1.8 Summary of Key Ideas
    1.9 References
    1.10 Problems
    Chapter 2 Modem CMOS Technology
    2.1 Introduction
    2.2 CMOS Profess Flow
    2.2.1 The Beginning-Choosing a Substrate
    2.2.2 Active Region Formation
    2.2.3 Process Option for Device Isolation-Shallow Trench Isolation
    2.2.4 N and P Well Formation
    2.2.5 Process Options for Active Region and Well Formation
    2.2.6 Gate Formation.
    2.2.7 Tip or Extension (LDD) Formation
    2.2.8 Source/Drain Formation
    2.2.9 Contact and Local Interconnect Formation
    2.2.10 Multilevel Metal Formation
    2.3 Summary of Key Ideas
    2.4 Problems
    Chapter 3 Crystal Growth, Wafer Fabrication and Basic Properties of Silicon Wafers
    3.1 Introduction
    3.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    3.2.1 Crystal Structure
    3.2.2 Defects in Crystals
    3.2.3 Raw Materials and Purification
    3.2.4 Czochralski and Float-Zone Crystal Growth Methods
    3.2.5 Wafer Preparation and Specification
    3.3 Manufacturing Methods and Equipment
    3.4 Measurement Methods
    3.4.1 Electrical Measurements
    3.4.1.1 Hot Point Probe
    3.4.1.2 Sheet Resistance
    3.4.1.3 Hall Effect Measurements
    3.4.2 Physical Measurements
    3.4.2.1 Defect Etches
    3.4.2.2 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR)
    3.4.2.3 Electron Microscopy
    3.5 Models and Simulation
    3.5.1 Czochralski Crystal Growth
    3.5.2 Dopant Incorporation during CZ Crystal Growth
    3.5.3 Zone Refining and FZ Growth
    3.5.4 Point Defects
    3.5.5 Oxygen in Silicon
    3.5.6 Carbon in Silicon
    3.5.7 Simulation
    3.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    3.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    3.8 References
    3.9 Problems
    Chapter 4 Semiconductor Manufacturing--Clean Rooms Wafer Cleaning and Gettering
    4.1 Introduction
    4.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    4.2.1 Level l Contamination Reduction: Clean Factories
    4.2.2 Level 2 Contamination Reduction: Wafer Cleaning
    4.2.3 Level 3 Contamination Reduction: Gettering
    4.3 Manufacturing Methods and Equipment
    4.3.1 Level 1 Contamination Reduction: Clean Factories
    4.3.2 Level 2 Contamination Reduction: Wafer Cleaning
    4.3.3 Level 3 Contamination Reduction: Gettering.
    4.4 Measurement Methods
    4.4.1 Level 1 Contamination Reduction: Clean Factories
    4.4.2 Level 2 Contamination Reduction: Wafer Cleaning
    4.4.3 Level 3 Contamination Reduction: Gettering
    4.5 Models and Simulation
    4.5.1 Level 1 Contamination Reduction: Clean Factories
    4.5.2 Level 2 Contamination Reduction: Wafer Cleaning
    4.5.3 Level 3 Contamination Reduction: Gettering
    4.5.3.1 Step 1: Making the Metal Atoms Mobile
    4.5.3.2 Step 2: Metal Diffusion to the Gettering Site
    4.5.3.3 Step 3: Trapping the Metal Atoms at tbe Gettering Site
    4.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    4.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    4.8 References
    4.9 Problems
    Chapter 5 Lithography
    5.1 Introduction
    5.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    5.2.1 Light Sources
    5.2.2 Wafer Exposure Systems
    5.2.2.1 Optics Basics-Ray Tracing and Diffraction
    5.2.2.2 Projection Systems (Fraunhofer Diffraction)
    5.2.2.3 Contact and Proximity Systems (Fresnel Diffraction)
    5.2.3 Photoresists
    5.2.3.1 g-line and i-line Resists
    5.2.3.2 Deep Ultraviolet (DUV) Resists
    5.2.3.3 Basic Properties and Characterization of Resists
    5.2.4 Mask Engineering-Optical Proximity Correction and Phase Shifting
    5.3 Manufacturing Methods and Equipment
    5.3.1 Wafer Exposure Systems
    5.3.2 Photoresists
    5.4 Measurement Methods
    5.4.1 Measurement of Mask Features and Defects
    5.4.2 Measurement of Resist Patterns
    5.4.3 Measurement of Etched Features
    5.5 Models and Simulation
    5.5.1 Wafer Exposure Systems
    5.5.2 Optical Intensity Pattern in the Photoresist
    5.5.3 Photoresist Exposure
    5.5.3.1 g-line and i-line DNQ Resists
    5.5.3.2 DUV Resists
    5.5.4 Postexposure Bake (PEB)
    5.5.4.1 g-line and i-line DNQ Resists
    5.5.4.2 DUV Resists
    5.5.5 Photoresist Developing
    5.5.6 Photoresist Postbake
    5.5.7 Advanced Mask Engineering
    5.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    5.6.1 Electron Beam Lithography
    5.6.2 X-ray Lithography
    5.6.3 Advanced Mask Engineering
    5.6.4 New Resists
    5.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    5.8 References
    5.9 Problems
    Chapter 6 Thermal Oxidation and the Si/SiO2 Interface
    6.1 Introduction
    6.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    6.3 Manufacturing Methods and Equipment
    6.4 Measurement Methods
    6.4.1 Physical Measurements
    6.4.2 Optical Measurements
    6.4.3 Electrical Measurements-The MOS Capacitor
    6.5 Models and Simulation
    6.5.1 First-Order Planar Growth Kinetic -The Linear Parabolic Model
    6.5.2 Other Models for Planar Oxidation Kinetics
    6.5.3 Thin Oxide SiO2 Growth Kinetics
    6.5.4 Dependence of Growth Kinetics on Pressure
    6.5.5 Dependence of Growth Kinetics on Crystal Orientation
    6.5.6 Mixed Ambient Growth Kinetics
    6.5.7 2D SiO2 Growth Kinetics
    6.5.8 Advanced Point Defect Based Models for Oxidation
    6.5.9 Substrate Doping Effects
    6.5.10 Polysilicon Oxidation
    6.5.11 Si3N4 Growth and Oxidation Kinetics
    6.5.12 Silicide Oxidation
    6.5.13 Si/SiO2 Interface Charges
    6.5.14 Complete Oxidation Module Simulation
    6.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    6.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    6.8 References
    6.9 Problems
    Chapter 7 Dopant Diffusion
    7.1 Introduction
    7.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    7.2.1 Dopant Solid Solubility
    7.2.2 Diffusion from a Macroscopic Viewpoint
    7.2.3 Analytic Solutions of the Diffusion Equation
    7.2.4 Gaussian Solution in an Infinite Medium
    7.2.5 Gaussian Solution Near a Surface
    7.2.6 Error-Function Solution in an Infinite Medium
    7.2.7 Error-Function Solution Near a Surface
    7.2.8 Intrinsic Diffusion Coefficients of Dopants in Silicon
    7.2.9 Effect of Successive Diffusion Steps
    7.2.10 Design and Evaluation of Diffused Layers
    7.2.11 Summary of Basic Diffusion Concepts
    7.3 Manufacturing Methods and Equipment
    7.4 Measurement Methods
    7.4.1 SIMS
    7.4.2 Spreading Resistance
    7.4.3 Sheet Resistance
    7.4.4 Capacitance Voltage
    7.4.5 TEM Cross Section
    7.4.6 2D Electrical Measurements Using Scanning Probe Microscopy
    7.4.7 Inverse Electrical Easements
    7.5 Models and Simulation
    7.5.1 Numerical Solutions of the Diffusion Equation
    7.5.2 Modifications to Fick's Laws to Account for Electric Field Effects
    7.5.3 Modifications to Fick's Laws to Account for Concentration-Dependent Diffusion
    7.5.4 Segregation
    7.5.5 Interfacial Dopant Pileup
    7.5.6 Summary of the Macroscopic Diffusion Approach
    7.5.7 Tbe Physical Basis for Diffusion at an Atomic Scale
    7.5.8 Oxidation-Enhanced or -Retarded Diffusion
    7.5.9 Dopant Diffusion Occurs by Both I and V
    7.5.10 Activation Energy for Self-Diffusion and Dopant Diffusion
    7.5.11 Dopant-Defect Interactions
    7.5.12 Chemical Equilibrium Formulation for Dopant-Defect Interactions
    7.5.13 Simplified Expression for Modeling
    7.5.14 Charge State Effects
    7.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    7.6.1 Doping Methods
    7.6.2 Advanced Dopant Profile Modeling-Fully Kinetic Description of Dopant-Defect Interactions
    7.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    7.8 References
    7.9 Problems
    Chapter 8 lon Implantation
    8.1 Introduction
    8.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    8.2.1 Implants in Real Silicon-The Role of the Crystal Structure
    8.3 Manufacturing Methods and Equipment
    8.3.1 High-Energy Implants
    8.3.2 Ultralow Energy Implants
    8.3.3 lon Beam Heating
    8.4 Measurement Methods
    8.5 Models and Simulations
    8.5.1 Nuclear Stopping
    8.5.2 Nonlocal Electronic Stopping
    8.5.3 Local Electronic Stopping
    8.5.4 Total Stopping Powers
    8.5.5 Damage Production
    8.5.6 Damage Annealing
    8.5.7 Solid-Phase Epitaxy
    8.5.8 Dopant Activation
    8.5.9 Transient-Enhanced Diffusion
    8.5.1O Atomic-Level Understanding of TED
    8.5.11 Effects on Devices
    8.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    8.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    8.8 References
    8.9 Problems
    Chapter 9 Thin Film Deposition
    9.1 Introduction
    9.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    9.2.1 Chemical Vapor Deposition (CVD)
    9.2.1.1 Atmospheric Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (APCVD)
    9.2.1.2 Low-Pressure Chemical Vapor Deposition (LPCVD)
    9.2.1.3 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition (PECVD)
    9.2.1.4 High-Density Plasma Chemical Vapor Deposition (HDPCVD)
    9.2.2 Physical Vapor Deposition (PVD)
    9.2.2.1 Evaporation
    9.2.2.2 Sputter Deposition
    9.3 Manufacturing Methods
    9.3.1 Epitaxial Silicon Deposition
    9.3.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Deposition
    9.3.3 Silicon Nitride Deposition
    9.3.4 Silicon Dioxide Deposition
    9.3.5 A1 Deposition
    9.3.6 Ti and Ti-W Deposition
    9.3.7 W Deposition
    9.3.8 TiSi2 and WSi2 Deposition
    9.3.9 TiN Deposition
    9.3.10 Cu Deposition
    9.4 Measurement Methods
    9.5 Models and Simulation
    9.5.1 Models for Deposition Simulations
    9.5.1.1 Models in Physically Based Simulators Such as SPEEDIE
    9.5.1.2 Models for Different Types of Deposition Systems
    9.5.1.3 Comparing CVD and PVD and Typical Parameter Values
    9.5.2 Simulations of Deposition Using a Physically Based Simulator, SPEEDIE
    9.5.3 Other Deposition Simulations
    9.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    9.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    9.8 References
    9.9 Problems
    Chapter le Etching
    10.1 Introduction
    10.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    10.2.1 Wet Etching
    10.2.2 Plasma Etching
    10.2.2.1 Plasma Etching Mechanisms
    10.2.2.2 Types of Plasma Etch Systems
    10.2.2.3 Summary of Plasma Systems and Mechanisms
    10.3 Manufacturing Methods
    10.3.1 Plasma Etching Conditions and Issues
    10.3.2 Plasma Etch Methods for Various Films
    10.3.2.1 Plasma Etching Silicon Dioxide
    10.3.2.2 Plasma Etching Polysilicon
    10.3.2.3 Plasma Etching Aluminum
    10.4 Measurement Methods.
    10.5 Models and Simulation.
    10.5.1 Models for Etching Simulation
    10.5.2 Etching Models----Linear Etch Model
    10.5.3 Etching Models----Saturation/Adsorption Model for lon-Embanked Etching
    10.5.4 Etching Models----More Advanced Models
    10.5.5 Other Etching Simulation
    10.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    10.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    10.8 References
    10.9 Problems
    Chapter 11 Back-End Technology
    11.1 Introduction
    11.2 Historical Development and Basic Concepts
    11.2.1 Contacts
    11.2.2 Interconnects and Vias
    11.2.3 Dielectrics
    11.3 Manufacturing Methods and Equipment
    11.3.1 Silicided Gates and Source/Drain Regions
    11.3.2 First-level Dielectric Processing
    11.3.3 Contact Formation
    11.3.4 Global Interconnects
    11.3.5 IMD Deposition and Planarization
    11.3.6 Via Formation
    11.3.7 Final Steps
    11.4 Measurement Methods
    11.4.1 Morphological Measurements
    11.4.2 Electrical Measurements
    11.4.3 Chemical and Structural Measurements
    11.4.4 Mechanical Measurements
    11.5 Models and Simulation
    11.5.1 Silicide Formation
    11.5.2 Chemical-Mechanical Polishing
    11.5.3 Reflow
    11.5.4 Grain Growth
    11.5.5 Diffusion in Polycrystalline Materials
    11.5.6 Electromigration
    11.6 Limits and Future Trends in Technologies and Models
    11.7 Summary of Key Ideas
    11.8 References
    11.9 Problems
    Appendices
    A.1 Standard Prefixes
    A.2 Useful Conversions
    A.3 Physical Constants
    A.4 Physical Properties of Silicon
    A.5 Properties of Insulators Used in Silicon Technology
    A.6 Color Chart for Deposited Si3N4 Films Observed Perpendicularly under Daylight Fluorescent Lighting
    A.7 color Chart for Thermally Grown SiO2 Films Observed Perpendicularly under Daylight Fluorescent Lighting
    A.8 Irwin Curves
    A.9 Error Function
    A.10 List of Important Symbols
    A.11 List of Common Acronyms
    A.12 Tables in Text
    A.13 Answers to Selected Problems
    Index
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