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CMOS Analog Circuit Design (1).pdf
Front Matter
Preface
Table of Contents
1. Introduction and Background
1.1 Analog Integrated-Circuit Design
1.2 Notation, Symbology, and Terminology
1.3 Analog Signal Processing
1.4 Example of Analog VLSI Mixed-Signal Circuit Design
1.5 Summary
Problems
References
2. CMOS Technology
2.1 Basic MOS Semiconductor Fabrication Processes
2.1.1 Oxidation
2.1.2 Diffusion
2.1.3 Ion Implantation
2.1.4 Deposition
2.1.5 Etching
2.1.6 Chemical Mechanical Polishing
2.1.7 Photolithography
2.1.8 Twin-Well CMOS Fabrication Steps
2.2 The pn Junction
2.3 The MOS Transistor
2.4 Passive Components
2.4.1 Capacitors
2.4.2 Resistors
2.5 Other Considerations of CMOS Technology
2.6 Summary
Problems
References
3. CMOS Device Modeling
3.1 Simple MOS Large-Signal Model SPICE LEVEL 1
3.2 Other MOS Large-Signal Model Parameters
3.3 Small-Signal Model for the MOS Transistor
3.4 Computer Simulation Models
3.4.1 SPICE LEVEL 3 Model
3.4.1.1 Drain Current
3.4.1.2 Threshold Voltage
3.4.1.3 Saturation Voltage
3.4.1.4 Effective Mobility
3.4.1.5 Channel Length Modulation
3.4.2 BSIM 3v3 Model
3.5 Subthreshold MOS Model
3.6 SPICE Simulation of MOS Circuits
3.7 Summary
Problems
References
4. Analog CMOS Subcircuits
4.1 MOS Switch
4.2 MOS Diode/Active Resistor
4.3 Current Sinks and Sources
4.4 Current Mirrors
4.5 Current and Voltage References
4.6 Temperature-Independent References
4.6.1 Voltage References with Moderate Temperature Stability
4.6.2 Voltage References with Excellent Temperature Stability
4.7 Summary
4.8 Design Problems
Problems
References
5. CMOS Amplifiers
5.1 Inverters
5.1.1 Active Load Inverter
5.1.2 Current-Source Inverter
5.1.3 Push-Pull Inverter
5.1.4 Noise Analysis of Inverters
5.2 Differential Amplifiers
5.2.1 Large-Signal Analysis
5.2.2 Small-Signal Analysis
5.2.3 An Intuitive Method of Small-Signal Analysis
5.2.4 Slew Rate and Noise
5.2.5 Current-Source Load Differential Amplifier
5.2.6 Large-Signal Performance of the Differential Amplifier
5.2.7 Design of a CMOS Differential Amplifier with a Current-Mirror Load
5.3 Cascode Amplifiers
5.3.1 Large-Signal Characteristics
5.3.2 Small-Signal Characteristics
5.3.3 Frequency Response
5.3.4 Finding Roots by Inspection
5.3.5 Driving Amplifiers from a High-Resistance Source: The Miller Effect
5.3.6 Designing Cascode Amplifiers
5.4 Current Amplifiers
5.4.1 What is a Current Amplifier?
5.4.2 Single-Ended Input Current Amplifiers
5.4.3 Differential-Input Current Amplifiers
5.5 Output Amplifiers
5.5.1 Class A Amplifiers
5.5.2 Source Followers
5.5.3 Push-Pull Common-Source Amplifiers
5.6 Summary
Problems
References
6. CMOS Operational Amplifiers
6.1 Design of CMOS Op Amps
6.1.1 Ideal Op Amp
6.1.2 Characterization of Op Amps
6.1.3 Classification of Op Amps
6.1.4 Design of Op Amps
6.1.4.1 Decide on a Suitable Configuration
6.1.4.2 Determine the Type of Compensation Needed to Meet the Specifications
6.1.4.3 Design Device Sizes for Proper DC, AC, and Transient Performance
6.2 Compensation of Op Amps
6.2.1 Small-Signal Dynamics of a Two-Stage Op Amp
6.2.2 Miller Compensation of the Two-Stage Op Amp
6.2.3 Controlling the Right Half-Plane Zero
6.2.4 Feedforward Compensation
6.3 Design of the Two-Stage Op Amp
6.3.1 Design Procedure for the Two-Stage CMOS Op Amp
6.3.2 Nulling Resistor, Miller Compensation
6.3.3 Simulation of the Electrical Design
6.3.4 Physical Design of Analog Circuits
6.4 Power-Supply Rejection Ratio of Two-Stage Op Amps
6.4.1 Positive PSRR
6.4.2 Negative PSRR
6.5 Cascode Op Amps
6.5.1 Use of Cascoding in the First Stage
6.5.2 Use of Cascoding in the Second Stage
6.5.3 Folded-Cascode Op Amp
6.6 Simulation and Measurement of Op Amps
6.6.1 Simulation and Measurement Techniques
6.7 Summary
Problems
References
7. High-Performance CMOS Op Amps
7.1 Buffered Op Amps
7.1.1 Buffered Op Amps Using MOSFETs
7.1.2 Buffered Op Amp Using BJTs
7.2 High-Speed/Frequency CMOS Op Amps
7.2.1 Extending the Gain Bandwidth of the Conventional Op Amp
7.2.2 Switched Op Amps
7.2.3 Current Feedback Op Amps
7.2.4 Parallel Path Op Amps
7.3 Differential-Output Op Amps
7.3.1 Considerations of Differential Signal Processing
7.3.2 Differential-in, Differential-out Op Amp Topologies
7.3.3 Common-Mode Output Voltage Stabilization
7.4 Micropower Op Amps
7.4.1 Two-Stage Miller Op Amp Operating in Weak Inversion
7.4.2 Other Op Amps Operating in the Weak Inversion Region
7.4.3 Increasing the Output Current for Weak Inversion Operation
7.4.4 Increasing the Output Current for Strong Inversion Operation
7.5 Low-Noise Op Amps
7.5.1 Low-Noise Op Amps Using MOSFETs
7.5.2 Low-Noise Op Amps Using Both MOSFETs and Lateral BJTs
7.5.3 Chopper-Stabilized Op Amps
7.6 Low-Voltage Op Amps
7.6.1 Implications of Low-Voltage, Strong Inversion Operation
7.6.2 Low-Voltage Input Stages
7.6.3 Low-Voltage Bias and Load Circuits
7.6.4 Low-Voltage Op Amps
7.7 Summary
Problems
References
8. Comparators
8.1 Characterization of a Comparator
8.1.1 Static Characteristics
8.1.2 Dynamic Characteristics
8.2 Two-Stage, Open-Loop Comparators
8.2.1 Two-Stage, Open-Loop Comparator Performance
8.2.2 Initial Operating States for the Two-Stage, Open-Loop Comparator
8.2.3 Propagation Delay Time of a Slewing, Two-Stage, Open-Loop Comparator
8.2.4 Design of a Two-Stage, Open-Loop Comparator
8.3 Other Open-Loop Comparators
8.3.1 Push-Pull Output Comparators
8.3.2 Comparators That Can Drive Large Capacitive Loads
8.4 Improving the Performance of Open-Loop Comparators
8.4.1 Autozeroing Techniques
8.4.2 Comparator Using Hysteresis
8.5 Discrete-Time Comparators
8.5.1 Switched Capacitor Comparators
8.5.2 Regenerative Comparators
8.6 High-Speed Comparators
8.7 Summary
Problems
References
9. Digital-Analog and Analog-Digital Converters
9.1 Introduction and Characterization of Digital-Analog Converters
9.1.1 Static Characteristics of DACs
9.1.2 Dynamic Characteristics of DACs
9.1.3 Testing of DACs
9.2 Parallel Digital-Analog Converters
9.2.1 Current Scaling DACs
9.2.2 Voltage Scaling DACs
9.2.3 Charge Scaling DACs
9.3 Extending the Resolution of Parallel Digital-Analog Converters
9.3.1 Combination of Similar Scaled DACs
9.3.2 Combination of Differently Scaled DACs
9.4 Serial Digital-Analog Converters
9.4.1 Summary
9.5 Introduction and Characterization of Analog-Digital Converters
9.5.1 Introduction to ADCs
9.5.2 Static Characterization of ADCs
9.5.3 Dynamic Characteristics of ADCs
9.5.4 Sample-and-Hold Circuits
9.5.5 Testing of ADCs
9.5.6 Design of a Sample-and-Hold Circuit
9.6 Serial Analog-Digital Converters
9.7 Medium-Speed Analog-Digital Converters
9.7.1 Successive-Approximation ADCs
9.7.2 Pipeline Algorithmic ADC
9.7.3 Iterative Algorithmic ADC
9.7.4 Self-Calibrating ADCs
9.8 High-Speed Analog-Digital Converters
9.8.1 Parallel or Flash ADCs
9.8.2 Interpolating ADCs
9.8.3 Folding ADCs
9.8.4 Multiple-Bit Pipeline ADCs
9.8.5 Digital Error Correction
9.8.6 Time-Interleaved ADCs
9.9 Oversampling Converters
9.9.1 Delta-Sigma ADCs
9.9.1.1 Delta-Sigma Delta Sigma Modulators
9.9.1.2 Alternative Modulator Architectures
9.9.1.3 Decimation Filtering
9.9.1.4 Implementation of Delta-Sigma Modulators
9.9.2 Delta-Sigma DACs
9.9.3 Comparison of Delta-Sigma Data Converters
9.10 Summary
Problems
References
Homework Problem Answers
Appendices
Appendix A: Circuit Analysis for Analog Circuit Design
A.1 Analytic Techniques
Appendix B: Integrated Circuit Layout
B.1 Matching Concepts
B.2 MOS Transistor Layout
B.3 Resistor Layout
B.4 Capacitor Layout
B.5 Summary of Best Practices
B.6 Layout Rules
References
Appendix C: CMOS Device Characterization
C.1 Characterization of Simple Transistor Model
C.2 1/f Noise
C.3 Characterization of other Active Components
C.4 Characterization of Resistive Components
C.5 Characterization of Capacitance
References
Appendix D: Time and Frequency Domain Relationships for Second-Order Systems
D.1 General Second-Order System in the Frequency Domain
D.2 Low-Pass, Second-Order System in the Time Domain
D.3 Determination of Phase Margin and Crossover Frequency from zeta and omega_n
Appendix E: Switched Capacitor Circuits
E.1 Analysis Methods for Switched Capacitor Circuits
E.2 Switched Capacitor Amplifiers
E.2.1 Continuous Time Amplifiers
E.2.2 Charge Amplifiers
E.2.3 Switched Capacitor Amplifiers
E.2.4 Nonidealities of Switched Capacitor Circuits
E.3 Switched Capacitor Integrators
E.3.1 Continuous Time Integrators
E.3.2 Switched Capacitor Integrators
E.3.3 Nonideal Characteristics of Switched Capacitor Integrators
References
Index
#
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Third Edition
CMOS Analog Circuit Design
Phillip E. Allen
Professor Emeritus, Georgia Institute of Technology
Douglas R. Holberg
Consultant
NewYork Oxford
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Published by Oxford University Press, Inc.
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All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means,
electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise,
without the prior permission of Oxford University Press.
ISBN 978-0-19-976507-2
Printing number: 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America
on acid-free paper
PREFACE
The objective of the third edition of this book continues to be to teach the design of
CMOS analog circuits. The teaching of design reaches far beyond giving examples of
circuits and showing analysis methods. It includes knowing the necessary fundamentals
and background and applying them in a hierarchical manner that the novice can understand.
Probably of most importance is to teach the concepts of designing analog integrated circuits
in the context of CMOS technology. These concepts enable the reader to understand the oper-
ation of an analog CMOS circuit and to know how to change its performance. In today's com-
puter-oriented thinking, it is crucial to maintain personal control of a design, to know what
to expect, and to discern when simulation results may be misleading. As integrated circuits
become more complex, it is crucial to know “how the circuit works.” Simulating a circuit
without the understanding of how it works can lead to disastrous results.
How does the reader acquire the knowledge of how a circuit works? The answer to this
question has been the driving motivation of this text beginning with the first edition. There
are several important steps in this process. The first is to learn to analyze the circuit. This
analysis should produce simple results that can be understood and reapplied in different cir-
cumstances. The second is to view analog integrated-circuit design from a hierarchical view-
point. This means that the designer is able to visualize how subcircuits are used to form
circuits, how simple circuits are used to build complex circuits, and so forth. The third step
is to set forth procedures that will help the new designer come up with working designs. This
has resulted in the inclusion of many “design recipes,” which became popular with the first
and second editions and have been enlarged in the third edition. It is important that the
designer realize that there are simply three outputs of the electrical design of CMOS analog
circuits. They are (1) a schematic of the circuit, (2) dc currents, and (3) W/L ratios and
component values. Most design flows or “recipes” can be organized around this viewpoint
very easily.
Previous Editions
The first edition of CMOS Analog Circuit Design published in 1987 was the first to present
a hierarchical approach to the design of CMOS analog circuits. Since its introduction, it has
xi
xii PREFACE
found extensive use in industry and classrooms worldwide. Of course, technology advances
and methodologies mature, making it clear that the first edition needed revision.
The second edition resulted from a unique blending of industry and academia. Between
the period of the first and second editions (15 years), over 50 short courses were taught from
the first edition to over 1500 engineers worldwide. In these short courses, the engineers
demanded to understand the concepts and insights to designing analog CMOS circuits, and
many of the responses to those demands were included in the second edition. In addition to
the industrial input to the second edition, the authors have taught this material at Georgia
Institute of Technology and the University of Texas at Austin. This experience provided
insight that was included in the second edition from the viewpoint of students and their ques-
tions. Moreover, the academic application of this material has resulted in a large body of new
problems that were given as tests and included in the second edition.
Third Edition
The third edition has focused on cleaning up the material and removing that which is not used.
Homework problems that were not effective have been removed and replaced by better prob-
lems. This edition has introduced the idea of design problems. These problems give the
desired specifications and a score for grading the problem. The reader is to do the design by
hand and then use the computer to simulate the performance and extract the score. These are
great vehicles for teaching the trade-off of optimizing the score versus the time spent. Also in
this edition, answers to selected problems are found at the back of the book.
Key changes to the third edition are as follows.
• The technology in Chapter 2 has been updated and a new appendix created to give
details on layout (Appendix B).
• In Chapter 3 the large-signal MOS model has been extended to include velocity
saturation.
• In Chapter 4, the bandgap section has been updated and completely rewritten.
• The cascode op amps in Chapter 6 have been updated and the enhanced-gain technique
used to create op amps with ultra large voltage gains.
• In Chapter 7, the differential-in, differential-out op amps have been updated and the
material on output common-mode feedback expanded.
• Chapter 9, on switched capacitor circuits, was removed and condensed into Appendix E.
• A design illustration was presented in Section 10.5 to show the steps in designing an
open-loop, buffered, sample-and-hold circuit.
• Also included in Chapter 9 at the conclusion is the website to an Excel spreadsheet that
has all published ADC converters from 1997 through 2010. This information is
extremely useful for understanding the trends in converters.
• Design problems have been introduced. These problems give the desired specifications
and a score for grading the problem. The reader is to do the design by hand and then
use the computer to simulate the performance and extract the score. These are great
vehicles for teaching the trade-off of optimizing the score versus the time spent.
• Readers of the previous editions have requested answers to the problems. In this edi-
tion, answers to selected problems are found at the back of the book.
Preface xiii
Overview of the Chapters
Unchanged from the second edition, the hierarchical organization of the third edition is illus-
trated in Table 1.1-2. Chapter 1 presents the material necessary to introduce CMOS analog
circuit design. This chapter gives an overview of the subject of CMOS analog circuit design,
defines notation and convention, makes a brief survey of analog signal processing, and gives
an example of analog CMOS design with emphasis on the hierarchical aspect of the design.
Chapters 2 and 3 form the basis for analog CMOS design by covering the subjects of CMOS
technology and modeling. Chapter 2 reviews CMOS technology as applied to MOS devices,
pn junctions, passive components compatible with CMOS technology, and other components
such as the lateral and substrate BJT and latch-up. Chapter 3 introduces the key subject of
modeling, which is used throughout the remainder of the text to predict the performance of
CMOS circuits. The focus of this chapter is to introduce a model that is good enough to pre-
dict the performance of a CMOS circuit to within ±10% to ±20% and will allow the design-
er insight and understanding. Computer simulation can be used to more exactly model the
circuits but will not give any direct insight or understanding of the circuit. The models in this
chapter include the MOSFET large-signal and small-signal models, including frequency
dependence. In addition, how to model the noise and temperature dependence of MOSFETs
and compatible passive elements is shown. This chapter also discusses computer simulation
models. This topic is far too complex for the scope of this book, but some of the basic ideas
are presented so that the reader can appreciate computer simulation models. Other models for
the subthreshold operation are presented along with how to use SPICE for computer simula-
tion of MOSFET circuits.
Chapters 4 and 5 present the topics of subcircuits and amplifiers that will be used to design
more complex analog circuits, such as an op amp. Chapter 4 covers the use of the MOSFET
as a switch followed by the MOS diode or active resistor. The key subcircuits of current
sinks/sources and current mirrors are presented next. These subcircuits permit the illustration
of important design concepts such as negative feedback, design trade-offs, and matching prin-
ciples. Finally, this chapter presents independent voltage and current references and the
bandgap voltage reference. These references attempt to provide a voltage or current that is
independent of power supply and temperature. Chapter 5 develops various types of amplifiers.
These amplifiers are characterized from their large-signal and small-signal performance,
including noise and bandwidth where appropriate. The categories of amplifiers include the
inverter, differential, cascode, current, and output amplifiers.
Chapters 6, 7, and 8 present examples of complex analog circuits. Chapter 6 introduces
the design of a simple two-stage op amp. This op amp is used to develop the principles of
compensation necessary for the op amp to be useful. The two-stage op amp is used to for-
mally present methods of designing this type of analog circuit. This chapter also examines the
design of cascode op amps, particularly the folded-cascode op amp. This chapter concludes
with a discussion of techniques to measure and/or simulate op amps. Chapter 7 presents the
subject of high-performance op amps. In this chapter various performances of the simple op
amp are optimized, quite often at the expense of other performance aspects. The topics
include buffered output op amps, high-frequency op amps, differential-output op amps, low-
power op amps, low-noise op amps, and low-voltage op amps. Chapter 8 presents the open-
loop comparator, which is an op amp without compensation. This is followed by methods of
designing this type of comparator for linear or slewing responses. Methods of improving the
performance of open-loop comparators, including autozeroing and hysteresis, are presented.
xiv PREFACE
Finally, this chapter describes regenerative comparators and how they can be combined with
low-gain, high-speed amplifiers to achieve comparators with a very short propagation time
delay.
Chapter 9 covers the topics of CMOS digital–analog and analog–digital converters.
Digital–analog converters are presented according to their means of scaling the reference and
include voltage, current, and charge digital–analog converters. Next, methods of extending
the resolution of digital–analog converters are given. The analog–digital converters are divid-
ed into Nyquist and oversampling converters. The Nyquist converters are presented accord-
ing to their speed of operation—slow, medium, and fast. Finally, the subject of oversampled
analog–digital and digital–analog converters is presented. These converters allow high reso-
lution and are very compatible with CMOS technology.
Five appendices cover the topics of circuit analysis methods for CMOS analog circuits,
integrated circuit layout, CMOS device characterization (this is essentially Chapter 4 of the
first edition), and time and frequency domain relationships for second-order systems. In addi-
tion, an appendix that covers switched capacitor circuits is included.
The material of the third edition is more than sufficient for a 15-week course. Depending
on the background of the students, a 3-hour-per-week, 15-week-semester course could
include parts of Chapters 2 and 3, Chapters 4 through 6, parts of Chapter 7, Chapter 8, and
Chapter 9. At Georgia Tech, this text is used along with the fourth edition of Analysis and
Design of Analog Integrated Circuits in a two-semester course that covers both BJT and
CMOS analog IC design. Appendix E and Chapter 9 are used for about 70% of a semester
course on analog IC systems design.
The background necessary for this text is a good understanding of basic electronics.
Topics of importance include large-signal models, biasing, small-signal models, frequency
response, feedback, and op amps. It would also be helpful to have a good background in semi-
conductor devices and how they operate, integrated-circuit processing, simulation using
SPICE, and modeling of MOSFETs. With this background, the reader could start at Chapter
4 with little problem.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their appreciation and gratitude to the many individuals
who have contributed to the development of the third edition. These include both under-
graduate and graduate students who have used the second edition and offered comments,
suggestions, and corrections. It also includes the over 1600 industrial participants who,
over the last 8 years, have attended a one-week course on this topic. We thank them for
their encouragement, patience, and suggestions. We also appreciate the feedback and cor-
rections from many individuals in industry and academia worldwide. In particular, the
authors would like to thank the following individuals for providing useful feedback on the
new edition.
Dr. Ron Pyle, Independent Consultant
Ka Y. Leung, Silicon Labs, Inc.
Suat Ay, University of Idaho
Degang Chen, Iowa State University
Preface xv
Yun Chui, University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign
Roman Genov, University of Toronto
Michael Green, University of California, Irvine
Dong S. Ha, Virginia Tech
Timothy Horiuchi, University of Maryland
Pedro Irazoqui, Purdue University
Hongrui Jiang, University of Wisconsin–Madison
Youngjoong Joo, University of Texas at San Antonio
Aydin Karsilayan, Texas A&M University
Bruce Kim, University of Alabama
Eun Sok Kim, University of Southern California
Ron Kneper, Boston University
Boris Murmann, Stanford University
Sameer Sonkusale, Tufts University
Ashok Srivastava, Louisiana State University
Jin Wang, University of South Florida
Francis Williams, Norfolk State University
The authors gratefully acknowledge the patience and encouragement of Caroline
DiTullio, acquisitions editor of Engineering, Science, and Computer Science at Oxford
University Press, during the development of the third edition and the firm but gentle shep-
herding of the third edition through the production phase by the assistant editor, Claire
Sullivan. Lastly, the assistance of Keith Faivre in helping with detail work associated with the
third edition is greatly appreciated.
Ancillaries
There are several ancillaries (supplementary materials) that will help the instructor in using
the third edition. They are listed below along with their impact.
• Answers to the problems are at the end of the text. The students will now know whether
their work is correct or not and will be able to interact with the instructor on homework
questions more efficiently.
• A complete solutions manual to all problems in PDF format. This will help in provid-
ing solutions to the homework problems beyond just the answers at the back of the text.
• A set of all figures in Microsoft PowerPoint format is available to help in preparing
lectures.
• Both authors maintain websites that provide resources that permit the downloading of
short course lecture slides, short course schedules and dates, class notes, problems and
solutions, etc., in PDF format. More information can be found at:
www.aicdesign.org
www.holberg.org
(P. E. Allen)
(D. R. Holberg)
xvi PREFACE
These sites are continually updated and the reader or instructor is invited to make use of the
information and teaching aids contained on these sites. For example:
• At http://www.aicdesign.org/edresources.html, 40 worked problems pertaining to the
text can be found.
• At http://www.aicdesign.org/scnotes10.html, 40 lectures starting with Chapter 1 and
finishing with Chapter 9 can be found in PDF format. These slides would be excellent
for instructors as a resource for lecture notes.
In addition to the above examples, many other resources are available at the two
websites.
Fernandina Beach, FL, and Wimberley, TX
Phillip E. Allen
Douglas R. Holberg
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