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Load-Pull Techniques with Application to Power Amplifier Design.pdf
Front_Matter
Load-Pull Techniques with Applications to Power Amplifier Design
Preface
Acknowledgements
Contents
Chapter1_Fundamentals
Chapter 1: Fundamentals
1.1 Introduction
1.2 RF Power Amplifier Characteristics
1.3 Figures of Merit
1.3.1 Drain Efficiency and Power Added Efficiency
1.3.2 Intermodulation and Harmonic Distortions
1.3.3 Adjacent Channel Power Ratio
1.3.4 Error Vector Magnitude
1.4 Power Amplifier
1.5 Power Amplifier Design Methodologies
1.5.1 CAD-Based Design Methods
1.5.2 Measurement-Based Design Methods
1.6 Nonlinear Microwave Measurement System
1.6.1 What Is Load-Pull?
1.6.2 Why Load-Pull?
1.7 Important Load-Pull Features
1.7.1 Repeatability of Reflection Coefficients
1.7.2 Tuning Range and Its Distribution
1.7.3 Tuning Speed
1.7.4 Power Handling Capability
1.7.5 Tuner Resolution
1.7.6 Tuner Bandwidth
1.7.7 Tuner Size
1.8 Common Load-Pull Systems
References
Chapter2_Passive_Load_Pull_Systems
Chapter 2: Passive Load-Pull Systems
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Passive Load-Pull System
2.2.1 Electromechanical Tuner (EMT)
2.2.2 Electronic Tuner (ETS)
2.2.3 ETS and EMT Comparisons
2.3 Load-Pull Measurement
2.3.1 Load-Pull Setup
2.3.2 System Calibration
2.4 Harmonic Load-Pull System
2.4.1 Triplexer Based Harmonic Load-Pull Setup
2.4.2 Harmonic Rejection Tuner Based Harmonic Load-Pull Setup
2.4.3 Single Tuner Harmonic Load-Pull Setup
2.4.4 Harmonic Load-Pull Comparisons
2.5 Tuning Range Enhancement
2.5.1 Enhanced Loop Architecture
2.5.2 Cascaded Tuner
References
Chapter3_Active_Load_Pull_System
Chapter 3: Active Load-Pull Systems
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Closed-Loop Load-Pull System
3.2.1 System Realization
3.2.2 Analysis of Closed-Loop System
3.3 Closed-Loop Load-Pull Architectures
3.4 Optimized Closed-Loop Load-Pull System
3.5 Feed-Forward Load-Pull System
3.6 Optimized Feed-Forward Load-Pull System
3.7 Harmonic Feed-Forward Load-Pull System
3.8 Open-Loop Load-Pull System
3.9 Convergence Algorithm for Open-Loop and Feed-Forward Load-Pull Techniques
3.10 Comparison of Active Load-Pull Techniques
References
Chapter4_Six_Port Based Load_Pull System
Chapter 4: Six-Port Based Load-Pull System
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Impedance and Power Flow Measurement
4.3 SP in Reverse Configuration
4.3.1 SP Calibration in Reverse Configuration
4.3.2 Error Box Calculation
4.3.3 Discussion
4.4 SP Based Source-Pull Configuration
4.5 SP Based Load-Pull Configuration
4.5.1 Passive Load-Pull System
4.5.2 Active Branch Load-Pull System
4.5.3 Active Loop Load-Pull System
4.6 On-Wafer Load-Pull Measurements
4.7 Applications of Source-Pull Setup
4.7.1 Low Noise Amplifier Characterization
4.7.2 Mixer Characterization
4.7.3 Power Amplifier Characterization
4.8 Oscillator Measurements
4.9 AM/AM and AM/PM Measurements
4.9.1 Principles of Operation
4.9.2 Measurement Procedure
References
Chapter5_High_Power_Load_Pull System
Chapter 5: High-Power Load-Pull Systems
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Limitations of Existing Load-Pull Systems
5.2.1 Problems Due to High Standing Waves
5.2.2 Problem of Large Load-Pull Power
5.3 High-Power Load-Pull
5.3.1 Pre-matching Technique
5.3.2 Enhanced Loop Architecture
5.3.3 Quarter Wave Transformer Technique
5.3.4 Broadband Impedance Transformer Technique
5.4 Impact of a Transformation Network on PLP and VSWR
5.5 Hybrid Load-Pull System
5.6 Calibration and Data Extraction
References
Chapter6_Envelope_Load_Pull_System
Chapter 6: Envelope Load-Pull System
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Envelope Load-Pull Concept
6.2.1 Mathematical Formulation
6.3 Practical Realization
6.3.1 Design of Control Unit
6.4 ELP Calibration
6.4.1 Error Flow Model Formulation
6.4.2 Simplification of the Error Flow Model
6.4.3 Calibration Technique
6.4.4 Evaluation of the Calibration Technique
6.5 Stability Analysis
6.6 Features of the Envelope Load-Pull System
6.7 Harmonic Envelope Load-Pull System
6.8 Unique Measurement Applications
References
Chapter7_Waveform Measurement and Engineering
Chapter 7: Waveform Measurement and Engineering
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Theoretical Formulation
7.3 Historical Perspectives
7.4 Practical Waveform Measurement System
7.5 System Calibration
7.5.1 First Step: Power Flow Calibration
7.5.2 Second Step: S-Parameter Calibration
7.5.3 Third Step: Enhanced Calibration
7.5.4 Calibration Evaluation
7.6 Six-Port Based Waveform Measurement System
7.6.1 Multi-harmonic Reference Generator
7.6.2 SP Reflectometer Principle
7.6.3 Multi-harmonic SP Reflectometer Architecture
7.6.4 Multi-harmonic SP Reflectometer Calibration
7.6.5 Calibration Verification
7.7 Waveform Engineering
7.8 Applications of Waveform Engineering
7.8.1 Transistor Characterization
7.8.2 CAD Incorporation
7.8.3 Power Amplifier Design
References
Chapter8_Advanced Configurations and Applications
Chapter 8: Advanced Configurations and Applications
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Multi-tone Load-Pull Technique
8.3 Real-Time Multi-harmonic Load-Pull Technique
8.4 Modulated Signal Load-Pull Technique
8.5 Multi-tone Envelope Load-Pull Technique
8.6 Wideband Load-Pull Technique
8.6.1 Wideband Load-Pull Approach
8.6.2 Setup Description
8.7 Noise Characterization
8.7.1 Noise Parameter Measurement
8.7.2 Noise Parameter Test Setup
8.8 Mixer Characterization
8.8.1 Measurement Setup
8.8.2 Experimental Procedure
References
Back_Matter
Authors
About the Book
Index
Load-Pull Techniques with Applications to Power
Amplifier Design
The Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics provides systematic information
on all the topics relevant for the design, processing, and manufacturing of micro-
electronic devices. The books, each prepared by leading researchers or engineers in
their fields, cover the basic and advanced aspects of topics such as wafer processing,
materials, device design, device technologies, circuit design, VLSI implementation,
and subsystem technology. The series forms a bridge between physics and engineer-
ing and the volumes will appeal to practicing engineers as well as research scientists.
Series Editors:
Dr. Kiyoo Itoh
Hitachi Ltd., Central Research Laboratory, 1-280 Higashi-Koigakubo,
Kokubunji-shi, Tokyo 185-8601, Japan
Professor Thomas H. Lee
Department of Electrical Engineering, Stanford University, 420 Via Palou Mall,
CIS-205 Stanford, CA 94305-4070, USA
Professor Takayasu Sakurai
Center for Collaborative Research, University of Tokyo, 7-22-1 Roppongi,
Minato-ku, Tokyo 106-8558, Japan
Professor Willy Sansen
ESAT-MICAS, Katholieke Universiteit Leuven, Kasteelpark Arenberg 10,
3001 Leuven, Belgium
Professor Doris Schmitt-Landsiedel
Lehrstuhl für Technische Elektronik, Technische Universität München,
Theresienstrasse 90, Gebäude N3, 80290 Munich, Germany
For further volumes:
www.springer.com/series/4076
Fadhel M. Ghannouchi r Mohammad S. Hashmi
Load-Pull
Techniques
with Applications
to Power Amplifier
Design
Fadhel M. Ghannouchi
Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Intelligent RF Radio Laboratory
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta
Canada
Mohammad S. Hashmi
Electrical and Computer Engineering,
Intelligent RF Radio Laboratory
University of Calgary
Calgary, Alberta
Canada
Springer Series in Advanced Microelectronics
ISSN 1437-0387
ISBN 978-94-007-4460-8
DOI 10.1007/978-94-007-4461-5
Springer Dordrecht Heidelberg New York London
ISBN 978-94-007-4461-5 (eBook)
Library of Congress Control Number: 2012939475
© Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2013
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology
now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection
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and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of
this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the
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Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations
are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of pub-
lication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any
errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect
to the material contained herein.
Printed on acid-free paper
Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)
Fadhel M. Ghannouchi dedicates this book to
his wife Asma, and daughters Layla and
Nadia
Mohammad S. Hashmi dedicates this book to
his wife Rabeya, and son Jafar
Preface
For the purpose of identifying the large-signal behavior of the transistor devices, the
use of linear S-parameter is often inadequate. Large-signal characterization, there-
fore, is essential for the estimation and determination of the device performance in
the nonlinear domain. The load-pull approach is one recommended approach for
the large-signal characterization, optimization, and design of transistor devices and
radio frequency (RF), microwave and mm-wave power amplifiers (PAs).
The load-pull technique was first reported almost four decades ago. This pioneer-
ing work brought a paradigm shift in the characterization, measurement, and opti-
mization of transistor devices and PAs. The first load-pull setup can be considered
rudimentary but has definitely helped in advancing the state-of-the-art in load-pull
techniques.
This book describes the principles of operation, calibration, design and real-
ization approaches and application of load-pull techniques in the context of PAs.
It explores the topic from the basic principles of load-pull techniques through to
their many interesting advancements, including passive and active techniques, high
power load-pull and envelope load-pull setups with applications to amplifier, mixer
and noise measurements. In addition, the book also covers waveform engineering
systems, their calibration techniques and applications.
The book can be used by graduate students, researchers and design engineers in
microwave and wireless design areas. It is assumed that the readers have already ac-
quired a basic knowledge of RF and microwave circuit design. A solid background
in transmission line theory and basic communication concepts is required. The book
may also be used as a textbook for a graduate course on large signal device mea-
surement and characterization.
Chapter 1 is a brief reminder of the basic concepts related to PA characteristics,
figures of merits of PA, power amplifier classes of operation, PA design methodolo-
gies, and introduction to load-pull systems along with their important features.
Chapter 2 is dedicated to passive load-pull techniques. It explains the funda-
mentals of passive load tuning techniques and elaborates on the two most com-
mon techniques, namely electronic tuner (ETS) and electromechanical tuner (EMT),
employed to achieve impedance tuning using passing approach. Measurement and
vii
viii
Preface
calibration procedure applied in a load-pull measurement setup is then discussed
in detail. The chapter also provides extensive details on various passive harmonic
load-pull architectures along with their respective advantages and limitations. Sub-
sequently, common techniques used to enhance the tuning range of passive load-pull
setups are discussed.
Chapter 3 provides extensive details on active load-pull techniques and systems.
It starts with closed-loop active load-pull technique and its realization methods. Ad-
equate details have been included for the design of application specific closed-loop
load-pull system. It then covers feed-forward active load-pull and various methods
to develop hybrid setup, for enhancing the tuning range and achieving highly reflec-
tive load-pull systems. Active open-loop load-pull requires iterative operation of the
system for converging on optimal impedance solution. The last section is dedicated
to an algorithm for high speed convergence in active open-loop load-pull systems.
Chapter 4 presents the theory, techniques and principles behind using six-port
reflectometer in reverse and forward configurations to characterize transistors oper-
ated in large signal conditions, and the issues related to the implementation of these
techniques are discussed. Source-pull characterization using six-port reflectometer
for transistor noise measurement, mixer testing and design, as well as oscillator de-
vice line measurement purposes are explained and discussed. AM/AM and AM/PM
distortion measurement and passive and active load-pull large signal characteriza-
tion of transistors using the six-port reflectometer technique are also presented and
discussed.
Chapter 5 deals with the issues involved in the characterization of high power mi-
crowave transistor devices. There are multiple aspects that need to be addressed in
order to overcome those issues. All these have been discussed in detail in this chap-
ter. The techniques adopted in customizing the load-pull setup for high power de-
vice measurements and characterization applications have been elaborated and ex-
plained in detail. Finally, emerging solutions catering to large periphery high power
microwave devices are presented.
Chapter 6 presents the theory of active envelope load pull (ELP) and the associ-
ated design and calibration techniques of active envelope load-pull. Thereafter har-
monic envelope load-pull is explained in detail which is followed by some unique
measurement applications of envelope load-pull system.
Chapter 7 is dedicated to theory and calibration approaches adopted in develop-
ing error corrected nonlinear time-domain waveform measurements systems. Sub-
sequently the concept of waveform engineering is presented. Finally, a number of
applications of waveform engineering system are discussed.
Chapter 8 presents some advanced applications and configurations of load-pull
setups. The first part of this chapter primarily discusses the concept of load-pull sys-
tems for multi-tone and modulated excitations. It experimentally demonstrates that
such systems are extremely useful for real life practical applications. Then the use of
load-pull and source-pull systems in noise characterization is described in detail. Fi-
nally application of load-pull systems in mixer characterization and measurements
in presented.
Acknowledgements
We would like to gratefully acknowledge the help and support received from friends,
colleagues, support staff and students, both past and present at iRadio Laboratory,
University of Calgary, Calgary; Poly-grames Research Center, Ecole Polytechnique,
Montreal; and Cardiff University, UK. We are grateful to our great students and re-
searchers; this book could not have been completed without their fruitful research.
In particular, we would like to thank Dr. R.G. Bosisio and Dr. P.J. Tasker for their
useful comments, discussions, collaboration and for their help in producing many
of the results presented in this book over the years. In addition, we would like to
thank C. Heys for her help in proofreading and formatting the manuscript and Ivana
d’Adamo for her administrative support. The authors would also like to thank IEEE
and Focus Microwaves for their permission and courtesy to reproduce several fig-
ures and illustrations published in their journals and/or application notes.
Dr. M. Hashmi acknowledges Alberta Innovates Technology Futures (AITF), Al-
berta, Canada for the financial contribution to support the post-doctoral fellowship
at iRadio Laboratory, University of Calgary, which helped the completion of this
work. Dr Ghannouchi acknowledges the main sponsors and financial supporters of
the Intelligent Radio Laboratory (iRadio Lab), Alberta Innovates Technology Fu-
tures (AITF), Alberta, Canada, the Canada Research Chairs (CRC) program and
Natural Science and Engineering council of Canada (NSERC).
Finally we would like to profoundly thank our respective spouses Asma and
Rabeya, and children Layla Ghannouchi, Nadia Ghannouchi and Jafar Talal Hashmi
for their understanding and patience throughout the many evenings and weekends
taken to prepare this book. We are also thankful to our respective patents for their
encouragement and valuable support in our early professional years as graduate stu-
dents and young researchers.
ix
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