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fiber bragg gratings.pdf
cover
Software Package
Copyright
Dedication
Preface
Acknowledgments
Introduction
Historical Perspective
Materials for Glass Fibers
Origins of the Refractive Index of Glass
Overview of Chapters
References
Photosensitivity and Photosensitization of Optical Fibers
Photorefractivity and Photosensitivity
Defects in Glass
Detection of Defects
Photosensitization Techniques
Germanium-Doped Silica Fibers
Germanium-Boron Codoped Silicate Fibers
Tin-Germanium Codoped Fibers
Cold, High-Pressure Hydrogenation
Hydrogen Loading of Optical Fibers
Rare-Earth-Doped Fibers
Densification and Stress in Fibers
Summary of Photosensitive Mechanisms in Germanosilicate Fibers
Summary of Routes to Photosensitization
Summary of Optically Induced Effects
Chemical Composition Gratings
References
Fabrication of Bragg Gratings
Methods for Fiber Bragg Grating Fabrication
The Bulk Interferometer
The Phase Mask
Fabrication of the Phase Mask
The Phase-Mask Interferometer
Slanted Grating
The Scanned Phase-Mask Interferometer
The Lloyd Mirror and Prism Interferometer
Higher Spatial Order Masks
Point-by-Point Writing
Gratings for Mode and Polarization Conversion
Single-Shot Writing of Gratings
Long-Period Grating Fabrication
Ultralong-Fiber Gratings
Tuning of the Bragg Wavelength, Moiré, Fabry-Perot, and Superstructure Gratings
Fabrication of Continuously Chirped Gratings
Fabrication of Step-Chirped Gratings
Techniques for Continuous Writing of Fiber Bragg Gratings
Tunable Phase Masks
Fabrication of Long-Period Gratings
Type II Gratings
Type IIA Gratings
Sources for Holographic Writing of Gratings
Low Coherence Sources
High Coherence Sources
References
Theory of Fiber Bragg Gratings
Wave Propagation
Waveguides
Coupled-Mode Theory
Spatially Periodic Refractive Index Modulation
Phase Matching
Mode Symmetry and the Overlap Integral
Spatially Periodic Nonsinusoidal Refractive Index Modulation
Types of Mode Coupling
Coupling of Counterpropagating Guided Modes
Codirectional Coupling
Polarization Couplers: Rocking Filters
Properties of Uniform Bragg Gratings
Phase and Group Delay of Uniform Period Gratings
Radiation Mode Couplers
Counterpropagating Radiation Mode Coupler: The Side-Tap Grating
Theoretical Model for Coupling to the Radiation Field
Copropagating Radiation Mode Coupling: Long-Period Gratings
Grating Simulation
Methods for Simulating Gratings
Transfer Matrix Method
Reflection Grating
Codirectional Coupling
Phase Shifts within a Grating
General Conditions and Restrictions for the T-Matrix Method
Multilayer Analysis
Rouard's Method
The Multiple Thin-Film Stack
Grating Design
Phase-Only Sampling of Gratings
Simulation of Gratings
References
Apodization of Fiber Gratings
Apodization Shading Functions
Basic Principles and Methodology
Self-Apodization
The Amplitude Mask
The Variable Diffraction Efficiency Phase Mask
Multiple Printing of In-Fiber Gratings Applied to Apodization
Position-Weighted Fabrication of Top-Hat Reflection Gratings
The Moving Fiber/Phase-Mask Technique
The Symmetric Stretch Apodization Method
Fabrication Requirements for Apodization and Chirp
References
Fiber Grating Band-Pass Filters
Distributed Feedback, Fabry-Perot, Superstructure, and Moiré Gratings
The Distributed Feedback Grating
Superstructure Band-Pass Filter
The Fabry-Perot and Moiré Band-Pass Filters
The Michelson Interferometer Band-Pass Filter
The Asymmetric Michelson Multiple-Band-Pass Filter
The Mach-Zehnder Interferometer Band-Pass Filter
Optical Add-Drop Multiplexers Based on the GMZI-BPF
The Optical Circulator-Based OADM
Reconfigurable OADM
The Polarizing Beam Splitter Band-Pass Filter
In-Coupler Bragg Grating Filters
Bragg Reflecting Coupler OADM
Theory of the BRC
Grating-Frustrated Coupler
Side-Tap and Long-Period Grating Band-Pass Filters
Polarization Rocking Band-Pass Filter
Mode Converters
Guided-Mode Intermodal Couplers
Sagnac Loop Interferometer
Gires-Tournois Filters
Tunable Band-Pass Filters
LPG Filters
References
Chirped Fiber Bragg Gratings
General Characteristics of Chirped Gratings
Chirped and Step-Chirped Gratings
Effect of Apodization
Effect of Nonuniform Refractive Index Modulation on Grating Period
Super-Step-Chirped Gratings
Polarization Mode Dispersion in Chirped Gratings
Systems Measurements with DCGs
Systems Simulations and Chirped Grating Performance
Other Applications of Chirped Gratings
Pulse Shaping with Uniform Gratings
Optical Delay Lines
Pulse Shaping with Chirped Gratings
Pulse Multiplication
Beam Forming
References
Fiber Grating Lasers and Amplifiers
Fiber Grating Semiconductor Lasers: The FGSL
Static and Dynamic Properties of FGLs
Modeling of External Cavity Lasers
General Comments on FGLs
The Fiber Bragg Grating Rare-Earth-Doped Fiber Laser
Erbium-Doped Fiber Lasers
Single-Frequency Erbium-Doped Fiber Lasers
Composite Cavity Lasers
The Distributed Feedback Fiber Laser
Multifrequency Sources
Tunable Single-Frequency Sources
Bragg Grating-Based Pulsed Sources
Fiber Grating Resonant Raman Amplifiers
Gain-Flattening and Clamping in Fiber Amplifiers
Amplifier Gain Equalization with Fiber Gratings
Optical Gain Control by Gain Clamping
Analysis of Gain-Controlled Amplifiers
Cavity Stability
Noise Figure
High-Powered Lasers and Amplifiers
Coupling of Laser Diodes to Optical Fiber with FBGs
Hybrid Lasers: Dynamic Gratings
Fiber Lasers with Saturable Absorbers in the Cavity
Toward Higher-Power Fiber Lasers and Amplifiers
Fiber Raman Lasers
Ultrahigh-Power Lasers and Amplifiers
References
Measurement and Characterization of Gratings
Measurement of Reflection and Transmission Spectra of Bragg Gratings
Perfect Bragg Gratings
Phase and Temporal Response of Bragg Gratings
Measurement of the Grating Profile
Optical Low-Coherence Reflectometry
Optical Frequency Domain Reflectometry
Side-Scatter Measurements
Measurement of Internal Stress
Strength, Annealing, and Lifetime of Gratings
Mechanical Strength
Bragg Grating Lifetime and Thermal Annealing
Accelerated Aging of Gratings
References
Principles of Optical Fiber Grating Sensors
Sensing with Fiber Bragg Gratings
Principles of Sensing
Fiber Designs for Sensing
Point Temperature Sensing with Fiber Bragg Gratings
Distributed Sensing with Fiber Bragg Gratings
Fourier Transform Spectroscopy of Fiber Bragg Grating Sensors
Fiber Bragg Grating Fiber Laser Sensors
Measurement of Temperature with Fiber Bragg Gratings
Strain Measurements with Fiber Bragg Gratings
Fiber Bragg Grating Wavelength Temperature Compensation Techniques
Pressure and Loading
Chirped Grating Sensors
Acceleration
Vibration and Acoustic Sensing
Magnetic Field Sensing with Fiber Bragg Gratings
Evanescent-Field Refractive Index Sensors
Fiber Bragg Grating-Based Refractive Index Sensors
Long-Period Gratings-Based Refractive Index Sensors
Surface Plasmon-Polariton Sensors
Guided Wave Surface Plasmon-Polariton Sensors
Theory of the Surface Plasmon-Polariton
Optimization of Surface Plasmon-Polariton Sensors
Long-Period Grating (LPG) Sensors
Applications of FBG Sensors
Biomedical Sensing: Hydrostatic Pressure Sensing in Medicine
Respiration Monitoring
Oil, Gas, and Mining
Structural Health Monitoring
Tilt Sensors
Conclusions and Future Prospects
References
Femtosecond-Induced Refractive Index Changes in Glass
Light Propagation in Glass
Theoretical Background
Point-by-Point Writing of Fiber Bragg Gratings with Femtosecond Lasers
Femtosecond Laser Writing with a Phase Mask
Infrared Femtosecond Laser Inscription of Fiber Bragg Gratings
Strength of Grating
Conclusion
References
Poling of Glasses and Optical Fibers
Optical Poling
A Grating for Quasi-Phase Matching
Recording a Grating for SHG
UV Poling
Thermal Poling of Glass
Glass Electrets
Creating a Second-Order Nonlinearity
Other Poling Techniques
Characterization Techniques
Measurement of the Nonlinear Optical Coefficient
Maker Fringes
SHG Microscopy
Etching
Elemental Analysis of the Surface and Other Techniques
Fundamental and Practical Issues
Cation Mobility
Defects and Water
Charge Movement
Electrodes
Spatial Resolution
The Poling Process in Detail
Poling for Short Time Intervals
Poling for Long Time Intervals
Models
Erasure and Stability
Routes for Increasing the Second-Order Optical Nonlinearity
Poling Methods (Optimization and Novel Techniques)
Increasing E-Field Breakdown
Increase chi(3) through Poling
Increasing chi(3) through Resonance and Doping
Glasses Other Than Silica
Nanocrystals
Heavy Metal Oxides
Tellurites
Chalcogenides
Phosphates
Soft Silicates
Comparison of Different Poled Glass Materials
Poled Films and Waveguides
Materials and Systems
Physics and Characterization
Quasi-Phase Matching
Bleaching
Poled Fibers
Physics and Characterization
Quasi-Phase Matching
Applications of Electro-Optic Fibers
Phase Modulation
Amplitude Modulation
Switching and Tuning
Polarization Control
Voltage Sensing
Conclusions
References
Appendix I
Calculating Grating Parameters
FBGs
LPGs
Material Properties-Based Parameters
Useful Physical Constants
References
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
Software Package
This book is accompanied by a special edition of the software, PicWave
from Photon Design (www.photond.com/products/picwave.htm), provided
to simulate live many of the examples found in this book. By showing the
device structures in detail and providing additional results, it will help to
gain additional insight into the examples presented in this book.
The software runs on any modern PC with Windows-2000 or later
installed, with 1GB of memory or more. It can be downloaded from the books
companion Web site, www.elsevierdirect.com/companions/9780123725790
free of charge to owners of this book.
PicWave takes a rather different time-domain travelling wave (TDTW)
approach to the frequency-domain based theory presented in this book,
and illustrates how similar results can be obtained in the time domain. Pic-
Wave is a circuit model and as such is capable of modelling not just linear
fiber components but also complex fiber devices such as fiber couplers,
splitters and amongst others.
Features illustrated by the software include:
. Behavior of a fiber-Bragg grating,
including transmission, reflection,
group delay, group velocity dispersion (after Chapter 4)
. Simulation of multi-mode effects, such as grating assisted co-directional
coupling from a fiber core to a cladding mode (after Chapter 4)
. Effect of apodization on FBG characteristics (after Chapter 5)
. Simulation of fiber band pass filters, including devices based on single
fibers, Mach-Zehnder interferometer circuits and in-coupler gratings
(after Chapter 6)
. Behavior of chirped fiber Bragg gratings (after Chapter 7)
. Transmission of digital bit patterns through examples, showing the dis-
tortion of signals in the time domain (eye diagrams).
The user is able to run the chosen examples, inspecting all the results
including optical transmission and reflection
available within PicWave,
spectra, group delay, dispersion, time signals and more.
This special version of Picwave is limited to modelling only the passive
fibre devices covered in this book. However the full PicWave package is
capable of modelling other non-linear and active devices such as laser
diodes and SOAs as discussed in Chapter 8.
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Application submitted
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN: 978-0-12-372579-0
For information on all Academic Press publications
visit our Web site at www.elsevierdirect.com
Printed in the United States of America
09
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1
Dedicated to the memory of my parents, Vimla and Kedar Nath Kashyap.
Preface
Despite the lapse of a decade since the previous edition of this book was pub-
lished, fiber Bragg gratings continue to flourish and their applications expand.
As has been the experience with optical fibers in the past, new discoveries have
continued to remain a driver for technological developments. In this respect, the
past decade has seen further activity in the poling of glass, fiber Bragg grating
sensors, high-power fiber lasers, and the opening of a new research on femtosec-
ond (fs) laser processing, which was just beginning to grow when the first edi-
tion came out in print. To reflect these developments, this edition has three
new chapters that touch on the topics of sensing, fs laser writing of fiber Bragg
gratings (FBGs), and poling of glass and optical fibers. It is hoped that these
chapters will bring the book into the mainstream of topical research interest.
The basis of the FBG, the refractive index change induced by ultraviolet or fs
laser pulses, now stands around a record 0.1, having met the prediction made
in 1999. Truly broadband mirrors spanning 300 nm are now possible in fiber
with high reflectivity (99%), challenging thin-film technology. In fact, some of
the periodic nanostructured gratings formed by fs laser pulses have a glass-air
boundary, which leads to the possibility of miniaturizing devices still further
with the large refractive index contrast of 0.45. The fs laser has allowed the
writing of strong gratings in materials that have traditionally been nonphoto-
sensitive, such as pure silica and ZBLAN glass. The use of high-intensity pulses
enables multiphoton absorption to occur, and these pulses also literally rip the
electrons out of their orbits to the conduction band, inducing plasmas and car-
rier heating. The optical damage that results has interesting applications in
strong gratings for high-temperature sensing. Indeed, sapphire fiber gratings
for high-temperature turbine measurements would not have been possible with-
out fs lasers. High-power lasers have suddenly become commonplace at unusual
wavelength, fueled by the downturn in the telecommunications and the rise of
the multibillion-dollar biophotonics and sensing industries. FBGs have found
their place in peculiar applications such as in the investigation of strain in the
human lumbar column. Glass poling, too, has evolved, even though the goal
1 electrically induced nonlinearity remains elusive. New polari-
of the 10 pm-V
zation controllers, fiber-based Q-switches, and other tunable FBG devices have
come of age with optical fiber poling. The low-loss optical fibers for telecommu-
nications made of a fused silica cladding and a germania-doped core still
xv
xvi
Preface
maintain their pride of place in optical fiber technology. Rare earth dopants in
silica and other glasses have made many more applications possible. The advent
of photonic crystal fibers are now demonstrating a way to increase the power-
handling capacity of optical fibers, although high-quality gratings remain diffi-
cult to implement in these fibers. Gratings are being applied to reduce the
impact of nonlinearities in fibers, pulse shaping and compression, and signal
processing. The mechanisms contributing to photosensitivity continue to be
debated, although major advances have been made in this area. There are a
number of methods of the holographic inscription of Bragg gratings using ultra-
violet radiation or infrared fs pulses, with the phase-mask technique holding a
prominent position. These methods have multiplied, with several techniques
demonstrated for the fabrication of ultralong gratings. New areas just on the
brink of breakthroughs, such as random lasers, are highly compatible with the
FBG. It is impossible to cover the massive advances made in this field in a book
of this size (even though the second edition is now vastly expanded), a field in
which the number of applications has exploded. The book therefore continues
to be an introduction to the extremely rich area of the technology of fiber grat-
ings, with a view to providing an insight to some of the exciting prospects,
including the principles of fiber Bragg gratings, the photosensitization of optical
fibers, Bragg grating fabrication, theory, properties of gratings, specific applica-
tions, sensing technology, glass poling, femtosecond processing of glass, and
FBG measurement techniques.
Acknowledgments
Writing a book is like planting a tree. One sees it grow and develop branches
and roots, leading to connections that permeate throughout the world, with the
hundreds of researchers providing the nourishment. At the end, the tree should
flourish to shade the ones who nourished it, and those yet to come. Therefore,
I am grateful to the scientific community at large for providing the data for this
book, now in its much-expanded form. The writing of the second edition poses
some problems, as the written data are often still valid and the new must be
integrated into the old. The choice has been a difficult one, as the field is now
very large, and it is often based on the examples that provide the information
required. The book is not therefore intended to be a bibliography of all the
research and applications that have been published in the area of laser-induced
fiber gratings, for there are too many. Instead, we focus on the technology with
the goals of guiding the reader on how to fabricate, use, and implement systems
with fiber gratings and shedding light on recent advances in the field.
I am deeply grateful to Walter Margulis for the major contribution he made
by writing the chapter on glass poling. Choosing the right person to prepare
that chapter was a difficult decision to make until I took the step of asking
him, and since, it was to be the best decision I could have made. His dedication
and lightening response is evident in the extremely thorough chapter he has
written. Without his help, the book would still be somewhere in cyberspace.
I am grateful, too, to my students and researchers, in particular Runnan Liu,
Irina Kostko, Mathieu Gagne´, Jerome Poulin, Francis Guay, Julie Baron, A¨ issa
Harhira, and the numerous others who spent time in my labs for their research
in the several areas of FBGs. Included among these are Jessica Chauve, Cedric
Pruche, Lucien Bojor, and John Machlecler. Galina Nemova’s contribution on
surface plasmons is most appreciated.
I am indebted to Jacques Albert, Re´al Valle´e, Sidarath Ramachandran, Ian
Bennion, and numerous others who have all generously contributed material
included in the new edition. James Brennan and Bertrand Poumellec are grate-
fully acknowledged for their painstaking review of sections of the first edition
and their constructive comments, which I have tried to incorporate in this edi-
tion. Fiber Bragg Gratings may not have made such progress without the help
of Dr. Ju¨ rgen Bartschke, who was instrumental in bringing to life the first
CW intra-cavity 244 nm laser source in my lab at BT Laboratories in 1989.
xvii
xviii
Acknowledgments
His recent visit from Xiton Photonics has renewed an old friendship and per-
haps new innovations in gratings. I hope that the theft of his passport did not
spoil an otherwise good visit to Montre´al!
Finally, I would like to thank Hannah and Monika, whose patience was not
only tested to the limits of exasperation, but whose caring and infinite capacity
to see the light at the end of the tunnel kept me on the straight and narrow.
Raman Kashyap
Montre´al
August 2009
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