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Bridges, Routers, Switches and Internetworking Protocols.pdf

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    Cover
    Content
    Chapter 1. Essential Networking Concepts
    1.1 Layers
    1.2 Service Models
    1.3 Important Properties of a Network
    1.4 Reliable Data Transfer Protocols
    Homework
    Chapter 2. Data Link Layer Issues
    2.1 Generic LANs
    2.1.1 What Is a LAN?
    2.1.2 Taking Turns
    2.2 IEEE 802 LANs
    2.3 Names, Addresses, Routes
    2.4 LAN Addresses
    2.5 Multicast versus Unicast Addresses
    2.6 The Broadcast Address
    2.7 Multiplexing Field
    2.8 Bit Order
    2.9 Logical Link Control
    2.10 Issues in 802.3
    2.11 Issues in 802.5
    2.12 Packet Bursts
    2.13 Reasons for Bridges
    2.14 Point-to-Point Links
    Homework
    Chapter 3. Transparent Bridges
    3.1 The No-Frills Bridge
    3.2 The Learning Bridge
    3.3 Spanning Tree Algorithm
    3.3.1 Configuration Messages
    3.3.2 Calculation of Root ID and Cost to Root
    3.3.3 Selecting Spanning Tree Ports
    3.3.4 An Example
    3.4 Spanning Tree Algorithm Refinements
    3.4.1 Failures
    3.4.2 Avoiding Temporary Loops
    3.4.3 Station Cache Timeout Values
    3.4.4 Networkwide Parameters
    3.4.5 Port ID
    3.4.6 Assigning Port Numbers
    3.4.7 Performance Issues
    3.4.8 One-way Connectivity
    3.4.9 Settable Parameters
    3.5 Bridge Message Formats
    3.5.1 Configuration Message Format
    3.5.2 Topology change notification format
    3.6 Other Bridge Issues
    3.6.1 Multiply Connected Stations
    3.6.2 Configuration of Filtering
    3.6.3 Not Quite Transparent
    3.7 Remote Bridges
    Homework
    Chapter 4. Source Routing Bridges
    4.1 Pure Source Routing
    4.1.1 The Routing Header
    4.1.2 Bridge Numbers
    4.1.2.1 Internal LAN Number
    4.1.2.2 The Route
    4.1.2.3 Reasons for Parallel Bridges
    4.1.3 Bridge Algorithms
    4.1.3.1 Transparent Packets
    4.1.3.2 Specifically Routed Packets
    4.1.3.3 All Paths Explorer Packets
    4.1.3.4 Spanning Tree Explorer Packets
    4.2 SR-TB Bridges
    4.2.1 Packets from a TB Port
    4.2.2 Packets from an SR Port
    4.2.3 Loops
    4.3 SRT Bridges
    4.4 End-system Algorithms
    4.4.1 When to Find a Route
    4.4.2 How to Find a Route
    4.4.2.1 Route Finding Strategy 1
    4.4.2.2 Route Finding Strategy 2
    4.4.2.3 Route Find Strategy 3
    4.4.2.4 Route Finding Strategy 4
    4.4.2.5 Route Finding Strategy 5
    4.4.2.6 Route Finding Strategy 6
    4.4.3 Route Discovery by the Destination
    4.4.4 Route Selection
    4.5 Source Routing versus Transparent Bridging
    4.5.1 Bandwidth Overhead
    4.5.2 Ease of Configuration
    4.5.3 Universality
    4.5.4 Cost and Performance of Bridges
    4.6 Ideas for Improving Source Route Bridging
    4.6.1 Autoconfiguration with Source Route Bridging
    4.6.2 Fixing the Exponential Overhead
    Homework
    Chapter 5. Hubs, Switches, Virtual LANs, and Fast Ethernet
    5.1 Hubs
    5.1.1 The Learning Hub and Security
    5.1.2 Store-and-Forward and Spanning Tree
    5.1.3 Mixing Layer 1 and 2 Switches
    5.1.4 Products versus Standards, Layer 1 versus Layer 2
    5.2 Faster LANs
    5.3 Virtual LANs (VLANs)
    5.3.1 Why VLANs?
    5.3.2 Mapping Ports to VLANs
    5.3.3 Example: VLAN Forwarding with Separate Router
    5.3.4 Example: VLAN Forwarding with Switch as Router
    5.3.5 Dynamic Binding of Links to VLANs
    5.3.6 Dynamic VLAN Binding, Switch-Switch
    Homework
    Chapter 6. Network Interface: Service Models
    6.1 What Is the Network Layer?
    6.2 Network Service Types
    6.2.1 Performance Guarantees
    6.2.2 Sample Service Model Choices
    6.2.3 Hybrid Schemes
    6.2.4 Connectionless versus Connection-oriented
    Homework
    Chapter 7. Connection-oriented Nets: X.25 and ATM
    7.1 Generic Connection-oriented Network
    7.2 X.25: Reliable Connection-oriented Service
    7.2.1 The Basic Idea
    7.2.2 Virtual Circuit Numbers
    7.2.3 Call Setup
    7.2.4 Data Transfer
    7.2.5 Flow Control
    7.2.6 Facilities
    7.2.7 Call Release
    7.2.8 Interrupts
    7.3 Implementing X.25 Inside the Net
    7.3.1 Circuit Method
    7.3.2 Reliable Connections over Datagrams Method
    7.3.3 Comparison
    7.4 Asynchronous Transfer Mode
    7.4.1 Cell Size
    7.4.2 Virtual Circuits and Virtual Paths
    7.4.3 ATM Service Categories
    7.4.4 ATM Cell Header Format
    7.4.5 Setting Up and Releasing Calls
    7.4.6 ATM Adaptation Layers
    7.4.6.1 AAL1
    7.4.6.2 AAL3/4
    7.4.6.3 AAL5
    Homework
    Chapter 8. Generic Connectionless Service
    8.1 Data Transfer
    8.2 Addresses
    8.3 Hop Count
    8.4 Service Class Information
    8.4.1 Priority
    8.4.2 Bandwidth Reservation and Service Guarantees
    8.4.3 Special Route Computation
    8.5 Network Feedback
    8.6 Fragmentation and Reassembly
    8.7 Maximum Packet Size Discovery
    Homework
    Chapter 9. Network Layer Addresses
    9.1 Hierarchical Addresses with Fixed Boundaries
    9.2 Hierarchical Addresses with Flexible Boundaries
    9.3 Owning versus Renting Addresses
    9.4 Types of Addresses
    9.5 IP
    9.5.1 IP Address Conventions
    9.5.2 Text Representation of IP Addresses
    9.6 IPX
    9.6.1 Privacy Issue with Unique IDs
    9.6.2 Ugly Rumors about IPX
    9.6.3 Administering IPX Addresses
    9.6.4 Internal IPX Network Numbers
    9.7 IPX+
    9.8 IPv6
    9.8.1 The IPv6 Version Number Story
    9.8.2 Written Representation of IPv6 Addresses
    9.8.3 Written Representation of IPv6 Prefixes
    9.8.4 EUI-64
    9.8.5 EUI-64 As Used by IPv6
    9.8.6 IPv6 Address Conventions
    9.8.7 Transition from IPv4 to IPv6
    9.9 CLNP Network Layer Addresses
    9.9.1 Autoconfiguration
    9.9.2 Embedded DTE Addresses
    9.10 AppleTalk Network Layer Addresses
    9.11 DECnet Phases III and IV
    9.11.1 A Bit of History
    9.11.2 DECnet Phase IV Address
    9.11.3 Mapping DECnet Address to Ethernet Address
    9.12 NAT/NAPT
    Homework
    Chapter 10. Connectionless Data Packet Formats
    10.1 Pieces of a Connectionless Network Layer
    10.2 Data Packets
    10.3 Summary of Packet Formats for Easy Reference
    10.3.1 IP
    10.3.2 IPX
    10.3.3 IPX+
    10.3.4 AppleTalk
    10.3.5 IPv6
    10.3.6 DECnet
    10.3.7 CLNP
    10.4 Technical Issues and Comparisons in Data Packet Formats
    10.4.1 Destination Address
    10.4.2 Source Address
    10.4.3 Destination and Source Sockets
    10.4.4 Header Length
    10.4.5 Packet Length
    10.4.6 Header Checksum
    10.4.7 Fragmentation Allowed
    10.4.8 Packet Identifier
    10.4.9 Fragment Offset
    10.4.10 Prefragmentation Length
    10.4.11 More Fragments Follow
    10.4.12 Lifetime
    10.4.13 Version
    10.4.14 Padding
    10.4.15 Protocol
    10.4.16 Type
    10.4.17 Error Report Requested
    10.4.18 Congestion Feedback: Source Quench versus DEC Bit
    10.4.19 Type of Service
    10.4.19.1 TOS Field in IPv4
    10.4.19.2 TOS in CLNP
    10.4.19.3 TOS in IPX, AppleTalk, and DECnet
    10.4.19.4 New Ideas for TOS
    10.4.20 Options
    10.4.20.1 Options in CLNP
    10.4.20.2 Options in IP
    10.5 Source Routing
    10.5.1 Loose versus Strict Source Routing
    10.5.2 Overwriting a Source Route with an Outgoing Link Address
    10.5.3 Overwriting a Destination Address with a Next Source Route
    10.5.4 A Security Flaw with the Source Route Option
    10.6 The Great IPX Frame Format Mystery
    10.6.1 IPX's Four Frame Formats
    10.6.2 Dealing with Multiple IPX Frame Formats
    10.7 Error Reports and Other Network Feedback to the Endnode
    10.7.1 CLNP Error Messages
    10.7.2 ICMP: IP Error Messages
    10.7.3 IPv6 Error Messages
    Homework
    Chapter 11. Neighbor Greeting and Autoconfiguration
    11.1 Endnodes Attached via Point-to-Point Links
    11.2 Endnodes Attached via LANs
    11.2.1 ES-IS: The CLNP Solution
    11.2.2 The IP Solution
    11.2.2.1 IP: Finding Neighbors' Layer 2 Addresses
    11.2.2.2 ARP/RARP Message Format
    11.2.2.3 Redirect Messages
    11.2.2.4 IP: Endnode Autoconfiguration
    11.2.3 The IPX Solution
    11.2.4 The DECnet Solution
    11.2.5 The AppleTalk Solution
    11.2.5.1 Knowing Who Is on Your LAN
    11.2.5.2 Finding a Router
    11.2.5.3 Acquiring an AppleTalk Address
    11.2.5.4 Seed Routers
    11.2.5.5 Some Wrinkles
    11.2.5.6 Finding the Best Router for a Given Destination
    11.2.6 The IPv6 Solution
    11.2.7 Review and Comparisons
    11.2.7.1 Endnodes Acquire a Layer 3 Address
    11.2.7.2 Router Finds Out Layer 3 Addresses of Endnode Neighbors
    11.2.7.3 Router Finds Out Layer 2 Addresses of Endnode Neighbors
    11.2.7.4 Endnodes Find a Router
    11.2.7.5 Endnode Neighbors Send Directly to Each Other
    11.2.7.6 Finding the Best Router
    11.2.7.7 Routerless LAN
    11.2.8 Comparisons
    11.2.8.1 ES-IS versus ARP
    11.3 Endnodes Attached via Nonbroadcast Multiaccess Media
    11.3.1 Various Solutions
    11.3.2 Providing Multicast in the Protocol Y Cloud
    11.3.2.1 Bridging
    11.3.2.2 Multicast in IPX
    11.3.2.3 Multicast in ATM
    11.3.2.4 Multicast in SMDS
    11.3.3 LAN Emulation
    11.3.3.1 Some LANE Jargon
    11.3.3.2 A Client (LEC) Boots Up
    11.3.3.3 Joining an ELAN
    11.3.3.4 Transmitting to Another LEC
    11.3.3.5 Sending a Multicast Packet
    11.3.4 Classical IP and ARP over ATM
    11.3.5 Cutting Out Extra Hops
    11.4 Finding Things
    11.4.1 Finding Services, Generically
    11.4.2 AppleTalk's Scheme
    11.4.3 Service Advertising Protocol for NetWare
    Homework
    Chapter 12. Routing Algorithm Concepts
    12.1 Distance Vector Routing
    12.1.1 Why Not Distance Vector?
    12.1.1.1 Hold-down
    12.1.1.2 Reporting the Entire Path
    12.1.1.3 Split Horizon
    12.1.1.4 Two Metrics
    12.1.1.5 Triggered Updates
    12.1.1.6 Poison Reverse
    12.1.1.7 DUAL
    12.2 Link State Routing
    12.2.1 Meeting Neighbors
    12.2.2 Constructing an LSP
    12.2.3 Disseminating the LSP to All Routers
    12.2.3.1 Timestamps
    12.2.3.2 Sequence Number/Age Schemes
    12.2.3.3 The ARPANET LSP Distribution Scheme
    12.2.3.4 New, Improved LSP Distribution
    12.2.4 Computing Routes
    12.3 Comparison of Link State and Distance Vector Routing
    12.3.1 Memory
    12.3.2 Bandwidth Consumed
    12.3.3 Computation
    12.3.4 A Note about Computation Cost
    12.3.5 Robustness
    12.3.6 Functionality
    12.3.7 Speed of Convergence
    12.4 Load Splitting
    12.5 Link Costs
    12.6 Migrating Routing Algorithms
    12.6.1 Running Both Algorithms
    12.6.2 Manual Node-by-Node Switch
    12.6.3 Translation
    12.7 LANs
    12.7.1 Making the LAN a Node
    12.7.2 Disseminating Routing Information
    12.8 Types of Service
    12.8.1 Handling Directives
    12.8.2 Multiple Metrics
    12.8.3 Policy-based Routing and Policy-based Constraints
    12.8.4 Static Routes
    12.8.5 Filters
    12.8.6 Source Routing
    12.8.7 Routing-domain-specific Policy
    12.8.8 Service-class-specific Policy
    12.9 Partition Repair: Level 1 Subnetwork Partition
    Homework
    Chapter 13. Fast Packet Forwarding
    13.1 Using an Additional Header
    13.2 Address Prefix Matching
    13.3 Longest Prefix Match with Trie
    13.3.1 Collapsing a Long Nonbranching Path
    13.3.2 Trading Memory for Search Time
    13.3.3 Binary Search on Prefix Lengths
    13.3.4 Exploiting Parallelism with Special Hardware
    13.3.4.1 Preparing the Data Structure for the Lookup Engine
    13.3.4.2 Doing a Lookup
    13.3.4.3 Optimizations
    13.4 Binary Search
    13.4.1 Sort the Prefixes
    13.4.2 Add Prefix Length to 1-padded Prefixes
    13.4.3 Get Rid of Duplicate Padded Prefixes
    13.4.4 K-ary Search
    13.4.5 Doing a Lookup
    Homework
    Chapter 14. Specific Routing Protocols
    14.1 A Brief History of Intradomain Routing Protocols
    14.2 RIP
    14.2.1 RIP Version 2
    14.3 RTMP, IPX-RIP, and DECnet
    14.4 IS-IS, OSPF, NLSP, and PNNI
    14.4.1 Hierarchy
    14.4.1.1 IS-IS Hierarchy
    14.4.1.2 NLSP Hierarchy
    14.4.1.3 OSPF Hierarchy
    14.4.1.4 PNNI Hierarchy
    14.4.2 Area Addresses
    14.4.2.1 IS-IS Area Addresses
    14.4.2.2 OSPF Area Addresses
    14.4.2.3 NLSP Area Addresses
    14.4.2.4 PNNI Peer Group Names
    14.4.3 LANs and Designated Routers
    14.4.3.1 IS-IS Designated Router Election
    14.4.3.2 OSPF Designated Router Election
    14.4.3.3 NLSP Designated Router Election
    14.4.3.4 PNNI Peer Group Leader Election
    14.4.4 Reliable Propagation of LSPs on LANs
    14.4.4.1 IS-IS and NLSP Link State Information Propagation
    14.4.4.2 OSPF Link State Information Propagation
    14.4.4.3 Comparison
    14.4.5 Parameter Synchronization
    14.4.5.1 IS-IS Parameter Synchronization
    14.4.5.2 OSPF Parameter Synchronization
    14.4.5.3 PNNI Parameter Synchronization
    14.4.6 Destinations per Packet
    14.4.7 LSP Database Overload
    14.4.7.1 IS-IS Database Overload
    14.4.7.2 OSPF Database Overload
    14.4.7.3 PNNI Database Overload
    14.4.8 Authentication
    14.4.9 IS-IS Details
    14.4.9.1 IS-IS for IP
    14.4.9.2 LAN Designated Router
    14.4.9.3 Big Packets
    14.4.9.4 Partitioned Areas
    14.4.9.5 Partitioned Level 2 Network
    14.4.9.6 Multiarea Bridged LANs
    14.4.9.7 Packets Used by IS-IS
    14.4.10 OSPF
    14.4.10.1 General Packet-encoding Issues
    14.4.10.2 Terminology
    14.4.10.3 Area Partitions
    14.4.10.4 Level 2 Partitions
    14.4.10.5 Finding the Right Level 2 Router
    14.4.10.6 Neighbor Initialization
    14.4.10.7 Types of LSAs
    14.4.10.8 Packet Encoding
    14.4.11 PNNI Details
    14.4.11.1 Path Setup
    14.4.11.2 Area Partitions
    14.5 Interdomain Routing Protocols
    14.5.1 Static Routing
    14.5.2 EGP
    14.5.2.1 Neighbor Acquisition
    14.5.2.2 Neighbor Reachability
    14.5.2.3 Routing Information
    14.5.3 BGP
    14.5.3.1 BGP Neighbors
    14.5.3.2 BGP Attributes
    14.5.3.3 BGP Policies
    14.5.3.4 Confederations
    14.5.3.5 Message Types
    14.5.3.6 Message Formats
    Homework
    Chapter 15. WAN Multicast
    15.1 Introduction
    15.1.1 Layer 2 Multicast
    15.1.2 Reasons for Layer 3 Multicast
    15.1.3 Dimensions to Consider
    15.1.4 Multihop Multicast (other than in IP)
    15.2 Multicast in IP
    15.2.1 Centralized versus Decentralized Multicast
    15.2.2 Could We Do Without Layer 3 Multicast?
    15.2.3 Mapping NL Multicast to DL Multicast
    15.2.4 IGMP Protocol
    15.2.5 IGMP Snooping
    15.2.6 Reverse Path Forwarding
    15.2.7 Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol
    15.2.8 Multicast OSPF
    15.2.9 Core-based Trees
    15.2.10 PIM-DM
    15.2.11 PIM-SM
    15.2.12 BGMP/MASC
    15.2.13 Multicast Source Distribution Protocol
    15.2.14 Simplifying Multicast
    15.2.14.1 Creating a Group in Simple Multicast: Choosing C
    15.2.14.2 How Do Endnodes Discover C?
    15.2.14.3 Isn't a Shared Tree Suboptimal?
    15.2.14.4 Single Point of Failure?
    15.2.14.5 Controlling Who Can Send
    15.2.14.6 Policy
    15.2.14.7 Specifying C in Join Messages
    15.2.14.8 Specify Both C and G in Data Messages
    15.2.14.9 Dense-mode Groups
    15.2.14.10 Express
    15.2.14.11 What Is Simpler About Simple Multicast?
    Homework
    Chapter 16. Sabotage-proof Routing
    16.1 The Problem
    16.2 All You Need to Know about Cryptography
    16.3 Overview of the Approach
    16.3.1 Robust Flooding
    16.3.1.1 Summary of Robust Flooding
    16.3.2 Robust Routing
    16.4 Detailed Description of the Approach
    16.4.1 Robust Flooding Revisited
    16.4.1.1 A Priori Information
    16.4.1.2 Dynamic Database
    16.4.1.3 Dealing with Multiple Public Key Distributors
    16.4.1.4 Packets
    16.4.1.5 Distribution of Public Key List Packets
    16.4.1.6 Distribution of LSPs
    16.4.1.7 Receipt of Acks
    16.4.1.8 Running Out of Sequence Number
    16.4.2 Robust Data Routing
    16.4.3 Additional Dynamic Database
    16.4.3.1 Additional Packets
    16.4.3.2 Receipt of Route-setup Packets
    16.4.3.3 Receipt of Data Packets
    16.4.3.4 Nonfunctioning Routes
    16.5 Summary
    16.6 For Further Reading
    Homework
    Chapter 17. To Route, Bridge, or Switch: Is That the Question?
    17.1 Switches
    17.2 Bridges versus Routers
    17.3 Extensions to Bridges
    17.3.1 Using More Than the Spanning Tree
    17.3.2 Fragmenting Bridges
    17.3.3 IGMP Snooping
    17.4 Extensions to Routers
    17.4.1 Faster Routers
    17.4.2 Multiprotocol Routers
    17.4.3 Single-protocol Backbone
    17.4.4 Brouters
    Chapter 18. Protocol Design Folklore
    18.1 Simplicity versus Flexibility versus Optimality
    18.2 Knowing the Problem You're Trying to Solve
    18.3 Overhead and Scaling
    18.4 Operation Above Capacity
    18.5 Compact IDs versus Object Identifiers
    18.6 Optimizing for the Most Common or Important Case
    18.7 Forward Compatibility
    18.7.1 Large Enough Fields
    18.7.2 Independence of Layers
    18.7.3 Reserved Fields
    18.7.4 Single Version-number Field
    18.7.5 Split Version-number Field
    18.7.6 Options
    18.8 Migration: Routing Algorithms and Addressing
    18.9 Parameters
    18.9.1 Avoiding Parameters
    18.9.2 Legal Parameter Setting
    18.9.2.1 "Report My Values" Method
    18.9.2.2 "Detect Misconfiguration" Method
    18.9.2.3 "Use My Parameters" Method
    18.10 Making Multiprotocol Operation Possible
    18.11 Running over Layer 3 versus Layer 2
    18.12 Robustness
    18.13 Determinism versus Stability
    18.14 Performance for Correctness
    18.15 In Closing
    Appendix Glossary
    Glossary
    About the Author
    Interconnections:Bridges, Routers, Switches and Internetworking Protocols I Content 1 15 Chapter 1. Essential Networking Concepts 1 1.1 Layers 1.2 Service Models 5 1.3 Important Properties of a Network 7 1.4 Reliable Data Transfer Protocols 11 Homework Chapter 2. Data Link Layer Issues 17 2.1 Generic LANs 17 2.1.1 What Is a LAN? 17 2.1.2 Taking Turns 18 2.2 IEEE 802 LANs 19 2.3 Names, Addresses, Routes 2.4 LAN Addresses 22 2.5 Multicast versus Unicast Addresses 24 2.6 The Broadcast Address 26 2.7 Multiplexing Field 26 2.8 Bit Order 29 2.9 Logical Link Control30 2.10 Issues in 802.3 32 2.11 Issues in 802.5 34 2.12 Packet Bursts 36 2.13 Reasons for Bridges 2.14 Point-to-Point Links Homework Chapter 3. Transparent Bridges 3.1 The No-Frills Bridge 41 3.2 The Learning Bridge 43 3.3 Spanning Tree Algorithm 53 3.3.1 Configuration Messages54 3.3.2 Calculation of Root ID and Cost to Root 3.3.3 Selecting Spanning Tree Ports 3.3.4 An Example 57 3.4 Spanning Tree Algorithm Refinements 59 3.4.1 Failures 59 3.4.2 Avoiding Temporary Loops 61 3.4.3 Station Cache Timeout Values 3.4.4 Networkwide Parameters 3.4.5 Port ID 66 3.4.6 Assigning Port Numbers 3.4.7 Performance Issues 36 37 39 65 67 41 56 57 63 21 68
    Interconnections:Bridges, Routers, Switches and Internetworking Protocols II 72 93 95 99 85 89 89 3.4.8 One-way Connectivity 69 3.4.9 Settable Parameters 70 3.5 Bridge Message Formats 72 3.5.1 Configuration Message Format 3.5.2 Topology change notification format 73 3.6 Other Bridge Issues 74 3.6.1 Multiply Connected Stations 74 3.6.2 Configuration of Filtering 76 3.6.3 Not Quite Transparent 78 3.7 Remote Bridges 82 Homework Chapter 4. Source Routing Bridges 4.1 Pure Source Routing 89 4.1.1 The Routing Header 4.1.2 Bridge Numbers 91 4.1.2.1 Internal LAN Number 92 4.1.2.2 The Route 93 4.1.2.3 Reasons for Parallel Bridges 4.1.3 Bridge Algorithms 95 4.1.3.1 Transparent Packets 95 4.1.3.2 Specifically Routed Packets 4.1.3.3 All Paths Explorer Packets 95 4.1.3.4 Spanning Tree Explorer Packets 96 4.2 SR-TB Bridges 97 4.2.1 Packets from a TB Port 97 4.2.2 Packets from an SR Port 4.2.3 Loops 100 4.3 SRT Bridges 101 4.4 End-system Algorithms 101 4.4.1 When to Find a Route 102 4.4.2 How to Find a Route 104 4.4.2.1 Route Finding Strategy 1 104 4.4.2.2 Route Finding Strategy 2 105 4.4.2.3 Route Find Strategy 3 106 4.4.2.4 Route Finding Strategy 4 106 4.4.2.5 Route Finding Strategy 5 107 4.4.2.6 Route Finding Strategy 6 107 4.4.3 Route Discovery by the Destination 4.4.4 Route Selection 4.5 Source Routing versus Transparent Bridging 109 4.5.1 Bandwidth Overhead 109 4.5.2 Ease of Configuration 109 4.5.3 Universality 110 4.5.4 Cost and Performance of Bridges 110 108 108
    Interconnections:Bridges, Routers, Switches and Internetworking Protocols III 113 133 126 117 121 121 4.6 Ideas for Improving Source Route Bridging 111 4.6.1 Autoconfiguration with Source Route Bridging 111 4.6.2 Fixing the Exponential Overhead 112 Homework Chapter 5. Hubs, Switches, Virtual LANs, and Fast Ethernet 5.1 Hubs 117 5.1.1 The Learning Hub and Security 118 5.1.2 Store-and-Forward and Spanning Tree 119 5.1.3 Mixing Layer 1 and 2 Switches 120 5.1.4 Products versus Standards, Layer 1 versus Layer 2 5.2 Faster LANs 5.3 Virtual LANs (VLANs) 123 5.3.1 Why VLANs? 125 5.3.2 Mapping Ports to VLANs 5.3.3 Example: VLAN Forwarding with Separate Router 126 5.3.4 Example: VLAN Forwarding with Switch as Router 128 5.3.5 Dynamic Binding of Links to VLANs 129 5.3.6 Dynamic VLAN Binding, Switch-Switch 131 Homework Chapter 6. Network Interface: Service Models 6.1 What Is the Network Layer? 135 6.2 Network Service Types 135 6.2.1 Performance Guarantees 6.2.2 Sample Service Model Choices 137 6.2.3 Hybrid Schemes 137 6.2.4 Connectionless versus Connection-oriented 138 Homework Chapter 7. Connection-oriented Nets: X.25 and ATM 141 7.1 Generic Connection-oriented Network 141 7.2 X.25: Reliable Connection-oriented Service 143 7.2.1 The Basic Idea 7.2.2 Virtual Circuit Numbers 145 145 7.2.3 Call Setup 7.2.4 Data Transfer 147 7.2.5 Flow Control 152 7.2.6 Facilities 153 7.2.7 Call Release 154 7.2.8 Interrupts 154 7.3 Implementing X.25 Inside the Net 154 7.3.1 Circuit Method 7.3.2 Reliable Connections over Datagrams Method 155 7.3.3 Comparison 155 7.4 Asynchronous Transfer Mode 156 7.4.1 Cell Size 156 140 135 136 144 155
    Interconnections:Bridges, Routers, Switches and Internetworking Protocols IV 161 162 163 159 160 7.4.2 Virtual Circuits and Virtual Paths 157 7.4.3 ATM Service Categories 7.4.4 ATM Cell Header Format 7.4.5 Setting Up and Releasing Calls 7.4.6 ATM Adaptation Layers 161 7.4.6.1 AAL1 162 7.4.6.2 AAL3/4 7.4.6.3 AAL5 163 Homework Chapter 8. Generic Connectionless Service 165 8.1 Data Transfer 165 8.2 Addresses 165 8.3 Hop Count 166 8.4 Service Class Information 166 8.4.1 Priority 167 8.4.2 Bandwidth Reservation and Service Guarantees 167 8.4.3 Special Route Computation 167 8.5 Network Feedback 168 8.6 Fragmentation and Reassembly 168 8.7 Maximum Packet Size Discovery 170 Homework Chapter 9. Network Layer Addresses 173 174 9.1 Hierarchical Addresses with Fixed Boundaries 9.2 Hierarchical Addresses with Flexible Boundaries 176 9.3 Owning versus Renting Addresses 177 9.4 Types of Addresses 177 9.5 IP 9.5.1 IP Address Conventions 181 9.5.2 Text Representation of IP Addresses 9.6 IPX 183 9.6.1 Privacy Issue with Unique IDs 9.6.2 Ugly Rumors about IPX 184 9.6.3 Administering IPX Addresses 9.6.4 Internal IPX Network Numbers 185 9.7 IPX+ 187 9.8 IPv6 188 9.8.1 The IPv6 Version Number Story 188 9.8.2 Written Representation of IPv6 Addresses 189 9.8.3 Written Representation of IPv6 Prefixes 189 9.8.4 EUI-64 189 9.8.5 EUI-64 As Used by IPv6 191 9.8.6 IPv6 Address Conventions 191 9.8.7 Transition from IPv4 to IPv6 192 193 9.9 CLNP Network Layer Addresses 182 183 184 171 178
    Interconnections:Bridges, Routers, Switches and Internetworking Protocols V 198 201 9.9.1 Autoconfiguration 196 9.9.2 Embedded DTE Addresses 196 9.10 AppleTalk Network Layer Addresses 197 9.11 DECnet Phases III and IV 9.11.1 A Bit of History 198 9.11.2 DECnet Phase IV Address 198 9.11.3 Mapping DECnet Address to Ethernet Address 199 9.12 NAT/NAPT 199 Homework Chapter 10. Connectionless Data Packet Formats 203 10.1 Pieces of a Connectionless Network Layer 203 10.2 Data Packets 204 10.3 Summary of Packet Formats for Easy Reference 204 10.3.1 IP 204 10.3.2 IPX 205 10.3.3 IPX+ 206 10.3.4 AppleTalk 207 10.3.5 IPv6 208 10.3.6 DECnet 209 10.3.7 CLNP 210 10.4 Technical Issues and Comparisons in Data Packet Formats 212 10.4.1 Destination Address 212 10.4.2 Source Address 212 10.4.3 Destination and Source Sockets 213 10.4.4 Header Length 10.4.5 Packet Length 10.4.6 Header Checksum 10.4.7 Fragmentation Allowed 10.4.8 Packet Identifier 215 10.4.9 Fragment Offset 216 10.4.10 Prefragmentation Length 216 10.4.11 More Fragments Follow 216 10.4.12 Lifetime 10.4.13 Version 10.4.14 Padding 10.4.15 Protocol 10.4.16 Type 220 10.4.17 Error Report Requested 221 10.4.18 Congestion Feedback: Source Quench versus DEC Bit 221 10.4.19 Type of Service 222 10.4.19.1 TOS Field in IPv4 222 10.4.19.2 TOS in CLNP 223 10.4.19.3 TOS in IPX, AppleTalk, and DECnet 225 10.4.19.4 New Ideas for TOS 225 217 218 219 219 213 213 214 215
    Interconnections:Bridges, Routers, Switches and Internetworking Protocols VI 245 231 226 10.4.20 Options 10.4.20.1 Options in CLNP 226 10.4.20.2 Options in IP 227 10.5 Source Routing 10.5.1 Loose versus Strict Source Routing 232 10.5.2 Overwriting a Source Route with an Outgoing Link Address 232 10.5.3 Overwriting a Destination Address with a Next Source Route 233 10.5.4 A Security Flaw with the Source Route Option 233 10.6 The Great IPX Frame Format Mystery 234 10.6.1 IPX's Four Frame Formats 235 10.6.2 Dealing with Multiple IPX Frame Formats 236 10.7 Error Reports and Other Network Feedback to the Endnode 237 10.7.1 CLNP Error Messages 237 10.7.2 ICMP: IP Error Messages 239 10.7.3 IPv6 Error Messages 244 Homework Chapter 11. Neighbor Greeting and Autoconfiguration 247 11.1 Endnodes Attached via Point-to-Point Links 247 11.2 Endnodes Attached via LANs 248 11.2.1 ES-IS: The CLNP Solution 250 11.2.2 The IP Solution 253 11.2.2.1 IP: Finding Neighbors' Layer 2 Addresses 11.2.2.2 ARP/RARP Message Format 254 11.2.2.3 Redirect Messages 255 11.2.2.4 IP: Endnode Autoconfiguration 11.2.3 The IPX Solution 259 11.2.4 The DECnet Solution 260 11.2.5 The AppleTalk Solution 11.2.5.1 Knowing Who Is on Your LAN 11.2.5.2 Finding a Router 11.2.5.3 Acquiring an AppleTalk Address 11.2.5.4 Seed Routers 262 11.2.5.5 Some Wrinkles 262 11.2.5.6 Finding the Best Router for a Given Destination 11.2.6 The IPv6 Solution 11.2.7 Review and Comparisons 263 11.2.7.1 Endnodes Acquire a Layer 3 Address 11.2.7.2 Router Finds Out Layer 3 Addresses of Endnode Neighbors 263 11.2.7.3 Router Finds Out Layer 2 Addresses of Endnode Neighbors 263 11.2.7.4 Endnodes Find a Router 263 11.2.7.5 Endnode Neighbors Send Directly to Each Other 264 11.2.7.6 Finding the Best Router 264 11.2.7.7 Routerless LAN 264 11.2.8 Comparisons 264 261 261 261 261 262 263 254 256 262
    Interconnections:Bridges, Routers, Switches and Internetworking Protocols VII 270 271 279 273 284 267 273 276 11.2.8.1 ES-IS versus ARP 264 11.3 Endnodes Attached via Nonbroadcast Multiaccess Media 265 11.3.1 Various Solutions 266 11.3.2 Providing Multicast in the Protocol Y Cloud 11.3.2.1 Bridging 267 267 11.3.2.2 Multicast in IPX 267 11.3.2.3 Multicast in ATM 11.3.2.4 Multicast in SMDS 269 11.3.3 LAN Emulation 269 11.3.3.1 Some LANE Jargon 269 11.3.3.2 A Client (LEC) Boots Up 270 11.3.3.3 Joining an ELAN 11.3.3.4 Transmitting to Another LEC 271 11.3.3.5 Sending a Multicast Packet 271 11.3.4 Classical IP and ARP over ATM 271 11.3.5 Cutting Out Extra Hops 11.4 Finding Things 11.4.1 Finding Services, Generically 11.4.2 AppleTalk's Scheme 274 11.4.3 Service Advertising Protocol for NetWare 275 Homework Chapter 12. Routing Algorithm Concepts 12.1 Distance Vector Routing 279 12.1.1 Why Not Distance Vector? 283 12.1.1.1 Hold-down 12.1.1.2 Reporting the Entire Path 284 12.1.1.3 Split Horizon 284 12.1.1.4 Two Metrics 285 12.1.1.5 Triggered Updates 286 12.1.1.6 Poison Reverse 286 12.1.1.7 DUAL 12.2 Link State Routing 287 288 12.2.1 Meeting Neighbors 12.2.2 Constructing an LSP 288 12.2.3 Disseminating the LSP to All Routers 288 12.2.3.1 Timestamps 12.2.3.2 Sequence Number/Age Schemes 12.2.3.3 The ARPANET LSP Distribution Scheme 12.2.3.4 New, Improved LSP Distribution 12.2.4 Computing Routes 12.3 Comparison of Link State and Distance Vector Routing 12.3.1 Memory 12.3.2 Bandwidth Consumed 300 12.3.3 Computation 301 300 290 294 291 299 289 297 287
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