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纳米光学导论 Principles of Nano-Optics.pdf
Cover
Principles of Nano-Optics
Title
Copyright
Dedication
Contents
Preface to the first edition
Preface to the second edition
1 Introduction
1.1 Nano-optics in a nutshell
1.2 Historical survey
1.3 Scope of the book
References
2 Theoretical foundations
2.1 Macroscopic electrodynamics
2.2 Wave equations
2.3 Constitutive relations
2.4 Spectral representation of time-dependent fields
2.5 Fields as complex analytic signals
2.6 Time-harmonic fields
2.7 Longitudinal and transverse fields
2.8 Complex dielectric constant
2.9 Piecewise homogeneous media
2.10 Boundary conditions
2.10.1 Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients
2.11 Conservation of energy
2.12 Dyadic Green functions
2.12.1 Mathematical basis of Green functions
2.12.2 Derivation of the Green function for the electric field
2.12.3 Time-dependent Green functions
2.13 Reciprocity
2.14 Evanescent fields
2.14.1 Energy transport by evanescent waves
2.14.2 Frustrated total internal reflection
2.15 Angular spectrum representation of optical fields
2.15.1 Angular spectrum representation of the dipole field
Problems
References
3 Propagation and focusing of optical fields
3.1 Field propagators
3.2 Paraxial approximation of optical fields
3.2.1 Gaussian laser beams
3.2.2 Higher-order laser modes
3.2.3 Longitudinal fields in the focal region
3.3 Polarized electric and polarized magnetic fields
3.4 Far-fields in the angular spectrum representation
3.5 Focusing of fields
3.6 Focal fields
3.7 Focusing of higher-order laser modes
3.8 The limit of weak focusing
3.9 Focusing near planar interfaces
3.10 The reflected image of a strongly focused spot
Problems
References
4 Resolution and localization
4.1 The point-spread function
4.2 The resolution limit(s)
4.2.1 Increasing resolution through selective excitation
4.2.2 Axial resolution
4.2.3 Resolution enhancement through saturation
4.3 Principles of confocal microscopy
4.4 Axial resolution in multiphoton microscopy
4.5 Localization and position accuracy
4.5.1 Theoretical background
4.5.2 Estimating the uncertainties of fit parameters
4.6 Principles of near-field optical microscopy
4.6.1 Information transfer from near-field to far-field
4.7 Structured-illumination microscopy
Problems
References
5 Nanoscale optical microscopy
5.1 The interaction series
5.2 Far-field optical microscopy techniques
5.2.1 Confocal microscopy
5.2.2 The solid immersion lens
5.2.3 Localization microscopy
5.3 Near-field excitation microscopy
5.3.1 Aperture scanning near-field opticalmicroscopy
5.4 Near-field detection microscopy
5.4.1 Scanning tunneling optical microscopy
5.4.2 Field-enhanced near-field microscopy with crossed polarization
5.5 Near-field excitation and detection microscopy
5.5.1 Field-enhanced near-field microscopy
5.5.2 Double-passage near-field microscopy
5.6 Conclusion
Problems
References
6 Localization of light with near-field probes
6.1 Light propagation in a conical transparent dielectric probe
6.2 Fabrication of transparent dielectric probes
6.2.1 Tapered optical fibers
Etching
Heating and pulling
6.3 Aperture probes
6.3.1 Power transmission through aperture probes
6.3.2 Field distribution near small apertures
Plane wave at normal incidence
Plane wave at arbitrary incidence
Bethe–Bouwkamp theory applied to aperture probes
6.3.3 Field distribution near aperture probes
6.3.4 Enhancement of transmission and directionality
6.4 Fabrication of aperture probes
6.4.1 Aperture formation by focused-ion-beammilling
6.4.2 Alternative aperture-formation schemes
6.5 Optical antenna probes
6.5.1 Solid metal tips
Fabrication of solidmetal tips
Resonant probes
6.6 Conclusion
Problems
References
7 Probe–sample distance control
7.1 Shear-force methods
7.1.1 Optical fibers as resonating beams
7.1.2 Tuning-fork sensors
7.1.3 The effective-harmonic-oscillator model
7.1.4 Response time
7.1.5 Equivalent electric circuit
7.2 Normal-force methods
7.2.1 Tuning fork in tapping mode
7.2.2 Bent-fiber probes
7.3 Topographic artifacts
7.3.1 Phenomenological theory of artifacts
7.3.2 Example of optical artifacts
7.3.3 Discussion
Problems
References
8 Optical interactions
8.1 The multipole expansion
8.2 The classical particle–field Hamiltonian
8.2.1 Multipole expansion of the interaction Hamiltonian
8.3 The radiating electric dipole
8.3.1 Electric dipole fields in a homogeneous space
8.3.2 Dipole radiation
8.3.3 Rate of energy dissipation in inhomogeneous environments
8.3.4 Radiation reaction
8.4 Spontaneous decay
8.4.1 QED of spontaneous decay
8.4.2 Spontaneous decay and Green’s dyadics
8.4.3 Local density of states
8.5 Classical lifetimes and decay rates
8.5.1 Radiation in homogeneous environments
The Lorentzian lineshape function
The Fano lineshape function
8.5.2 Radiation in inhomogeneous environments
8.5.3 Frequency shifts
8.6 Dipole–dipole interactions and energy transfer
8.6.1 Multipole expansion of the Coulombic interaction
8.6.2 Energy transfer between two particles
8.7 Strong coupling (delocalized excitations)
8.7.1 Coupled oscillators
8.7.2 Adiabatic and diabatic transitions
8.7.3 Coupled two-level systems
8.7.4 Entanglement
Problems
References
9 Quantum emitters
9.1 Types of quantum emitters
9.1.1 Fluorescent molecules
Excitation of fluorescent molecules
Relaxation of flurescentmolecules
9.1.2 Semiconductor quantum dots
Surface passivation
Excitation of quantum dots
Coherent control of excitons
9.1.3 Color centers in diamond
Optically detected magnetic resonance (ODMR) in diamond NV centers
Stimulated-emission-depletion microscopy of NV centers in diamond
9.2 The absorption cross-section
9.3 Single-photon emission by three-level systems
9.3.1 Steady-state analysis
9.3.2 Time-dependent analysis
9.4 Single molecules as probes for localized fields
9.4.1 Field distribution in a laser focus
9.4.2 Probing strongly localized fields
Field distribution near subwavelength apertures
Field distribution near tips and particles
9.5 Conclusion
Problems
References
10 Dipole emission near planar interfaces
10.1 Allowed and forbidden light
10.2 Angular spectrum representation of the dyadic Green function
10.3 Decomposition of the dyadic Green function
10.4 Dyadic Green functions for the reflected and transmitted fields
10.5 Spontaneous decay rates near planar interfaces
10.6 Far-fields
10.7 Radiation patterns
10.8 Where is the radiation going?
10.9 Magnetic dipoles
10.10 The image dipole approximation
10.10.1 Vertical dipole
10.10.2 Horizontal dipole
10.10.3 Including retardation
Problems
References
11 Photonic crystals, resonators, and cavity optomechanics
11.1 Photonic crystals
11.1.1 The photonic bandgap
11.1.2 Defects in photonic crystals
11.2 Metamaterials
11.2.1 Negative-index materials
11.2.2 Anomalous refraction and left-handedness
11.2.3 Imaging with negative-index materials
11.3 Optical microcavities
11.3.1 Cavity perturbation
11.4 Cavity optomechanics
Problems
References
12 Surface plasmons
12.1 Noble metals as plasmas
12.1.1 Plasma oscillations
12.1.2 The ponderomotive force
12.1.3 Screening
12.2 Optical properties of noble metals
12.2.1 Drude–Sommerfeld theory
12.2.2 Interband transitions
12.3 Surface plasmon polaritons at plane interfaces
12.3.1 Properties of surface plasmon polaritons
Plasmon wavelength
Plasmon propagation length
Plasmon evanescent-field decay length
Intensity enhancement
12.3.2 Thin-film surface plasmon polaritons
12.3.3 Excitation of surface plasmon polaritons
The plasmon dispersion relation
Excitation configurations
12.3.4 Surface plasmon sensors
12.4 Surface plasmons in nano-optics
12.4.1 Plasmons supported by wires and particles
Transverse plasmon resonances of a thin wire
Propagating surface plasmon polaritons on thin wires
Plasmon resonances of a small spherical particle
Plasmon resonances of non-spherical particles
Local interactions with particle plasmons: sensing applications
12.4.2 Plasmon resonances of more complex structures
12.4.3 Surface-enhanced Raman scattering
12.5 Nonlinear plasmonics
12.6 Conclusion
Problems
References
13 Optical antennas
13.1 Significance of optical antennas
13.2 Elements of classical antenna theory
13.3 Optical antenna theory
13.3.1 Antenna parameters
Antenna efficiency
Intrinsic efficiency
Radiation pattern
Directivity
Effective area
Gain
The Chu limit
Reciprocity
Antenna aperture
Friis equation
Effective wavelength
Radiation resistance
Lumped-circuit elements
Kinetic inductance
The density of states
13.3.2 Antenna-coupled light–matter interactions
13.3.3 Coupled-dipole antennas
13.4 Quantum emitter coupled to an antenna
13.5 Quantum yield enhancement
13.6 Conclusion
Problems
References
14 Optical forces
14.1 Maxwell's stress tensor
14.2 Radiation pressure
14.3 Lorentz force density
14.4 The dipole approximation
14.4.1 Time-averaged force
14.4.2 Monochromatic fields
14.4.3 Self-induced back-action
14.4.4 Saturation behavior for near-resonance excitation
14.4.5 Beyond the dipole approximation
14.5 Optical tweezers
14.6 Angular momentum and torque
14.7 Forces in optical near-fields
14.8 Conclusion
Problems
References
15 Fluctuation-induced interactions
15.1 The fluctuation–dissipation theorem
15.1.1 The system response function
15.1.2 Johnson noise
15.1.3 Dissipation due to fluctuating external fields
15.1.4 Normal and antinormal ordering
15.2 Emission by fluctuating sources
15.2.1 Blackbody radiation
15.2.2 Coherence, spectral shifts, and heat transfer
15.3 Fluctuation-induced forces
15.3.1 The Casimir–Polder potential
15.3.2 Electromagnetic friction
15.4 Conclusion
Problems
References
16 Theoretical methods in nano-optics
16.1 The multiple-multipole method
16.2 Volume-integral methods
16.2.1 The volume-integral equation
16.2.2 The method of moments (MOM)
16.2.3 The coupled-dipole method (CDM)
16.2.4 Equivalence of the MOM and the CDM
16.3 Effective polarizability
16.4 The total Green function
16.5 Conclusion
Problems
References
Appendix A Semi-analytical derivation of the atomic polarizability
A.1 Steady-state polarizability for weak excitation fields
A.2 Near-resonance excitation in the absence of damping
A.3 Near-resonance excitation with damping
Appendix B Spontaneous emission in the weak-coupling regime
B.1 Weisskopf–Wigner theory
B.2 Inhomogeneous environments
References
Appendix C Fields of a dipole near a layered substrate
C.1 Vertical electric dipole
C.2 Horizontal electric dipole
C.3 Definition of the coefficients Aj, Bj, and Cj
Appendix D Far-field Green functions
Index
Principles of Nano-Optics
First published in 2006, this book has become the standard reference on nano-optics. Now
in its second edition, the text has been thoroughly updated to take into account new devel-
opments and research directions. While the overall structure and pedagogical style of the
book remain unchanged, all existing chapters have been expanded and a new chapter has
been added.
Adopting a broad perspective, the authors provide a detailed overview of the theoret-
ical and experimental concepts that are needed to understand and work in nano-optics,
across subfields ranging from quantum optics to biophysics. New topics of discussion
include optical antennas, new imaging techniques, Fano interference and strong coupling,
reciprocity, metamaterials, and cavity optomechanics.
With numerous end-of-chapter problem sets and illustrative material to expand on ideas
discussed in the main text, this is an ideal textbook for graduate students entering the field.
It is also a valuable reference for researchers and course teachers.
LUKAS NOVOTNY is Professor of Optics and Physics at the University of Rochester, New York,
where he heads the Nano-Optics Research Group at the Institute of Optics. He received
his Ph.D. from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology (ETH Zürich) in Switzerland and
later joined the Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (Washington, WA) as a research
fellow. In 1999, he joined the faculty of the Institute of Optics at the University of
Rochester and developed a course on nano-optics that has been taught several times at
the graduate level and forms the basis of this textbook. In 2012, he joined the ETH Zürich.
BERT HECHT is Professor of Experimental Physics at the University of Würzburg. After study-
ing physics at the University of Konstanz, he joined the IBM Zurich Research Laboratory
in Rüschlikon and worked in near-field optical microscopy and plasmonics. In 1996, he
received his Ph.D. from the University of Basel and then joined the Physical Chemistry
Laboratory of the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, where he worked on the combi-
nation of single-molecule spectroscopy with scanning probe techniques. In 2001, he was
awarded a Swiss National Science Foundation research professorship at the University of
Basel. His research interests concern the enhancement of light–matter interaction on the
nanometer scale.
Principles of Nano-Optics
Second Edition
LUKAS NOVOTNY
University of Rochester, New York
ETH Zürich, Switzerland
BERT HECHT
Universität Würzburg, Germany
C A M B R I D G E U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S
Cambridge, New York, Melbourne, Madrid, Cape Town,
Singapore, São Paulo, Delhi, Mexico City
Cambridge University Press
The Edinburgh Building, Cambridge CB2 8RU, UK
Published in the United States of America by Cambridge University Press, New York
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/9781107005464
www.cambridge.org
c L. Novotny and B. Hecht 2012
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2006
Second edition 2012
Printed in the United Kingdom at the University Press, Cambridge
A catalog record for this publication is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog in Publication data
Novotny, Lukas.
Principles of nano-optics / Lukas Novotny, University of Rochester, New York,
Bert Hecht, Universität Wiirzburg, Germany. – Second Edition.
p.
cm.
ISBN 978-1-107-00546-4 (hardback)
1. Nanostructured materials.
2. Near-field microscopy.
3. Quantum optics.
4. Photonics.
5. Nanophotonics.
I. Hecht, Bert, 1968– II. Title.
TA418.9.N35N68
535
.15–dc23
2012005672
2012
ISBN 978-1-107-00546-4 Hardback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or
accuracy of URLs for external or third-party internet websites referred to
in this publication, and does not guarantee that any content on such
websites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
To our families
(Jessica, Leonore, Jakob, David, Rahel, Rebecca, Nadja, Jan)
and our parents
(Annemarie, Werner, Miloslav, Vera)
. . . it was worth the climb
(B. B. Goldberg)
Contents
Preface to the first edition
Preface to the second edition
page xv
xvii
1
2
Introduction
1.1 Nano-optics in a nutshell
1.2 Historical survey
1.3
Scope of the book
References
Theoretical foundations
2.1 Macroscopic electrodynamics
2.2 Wave equations
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10 Boundary conditions
Constitutive relations
Spectral representation of time-dependent fields
Fields as complex analytic signals
Time-harmonic fields
Longitudinal and transverse fields
Complex dielectric constant
Piecewise homogeneous media
2.10.1
Fresnel reflection and transmission coefficients
2.11 Conservation of energy
2.12 Dyadic Green functions
2.12.1 Mathematical basis of Green functions
2.12.2 Derivation of the Green function for the electric field
2.12.3 Time-dependent Green functions
2.13 Reciprocity
2.14 Evanescent fields
2.14.1 Energy transport by evanescent waves
2.14.2
Frustrated total internal reflection
2.15 Angular spectrum representation of optical fields
2.15.1 Angular spectrum representation of the dipole field
Problems
References
vii
1
3
4
7
9
12
12
14
14
15
16
16
17
18
18
19
20
22
25
25
27
30
31
32
34
36
38
41
42
43
viii
Contents
3
4
Propagation and focusing of optical fields
3.1
3.2
Field propagators
Paraxial approximation of optical fields
Gaussian laser beams
3.2.1
Higher-order laser modes
3.2.2
Longitudinal fields in the focal region
3.2.3
Polarized electric and polarized magnetic fields
Far-fields in the angular spectrum representation
Focusing of fields
Focal fields
Focusing of higher-order laser modes
The limit of weak focusing
Focusing near planar interfaces
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10 The reflected image of a strongly focused spot
Problems
References
Resolution and localization
4.1
4.2
The point-spread function
The resolution limit(s)
4.2.1
4.2.2
4.2.3
Principles of confocal microscopy
Increasing resolution through selective excitation
Axial resolution
Resolution enhancement through saturation
4.3
4.4 Axial resolution in multiphoton microscopy
4.5
Theoretical background
Estimating the uncertainties of fit parameters
Localization and position accuracy
4.5.1
4.5.2
Principles of near-field optical microscopy
4.6.1
Structured-illumination microscopy
Information transfer from near-field to far-field
4.6
4.7
Problems
References
5 Nanoscale optical microscopy
5.1
5.2
The interaction series
Far-field optical microscopy techniques
5.2.1
5.2.2
5.2.3
Confocal microscopy
The solid immersion lens
Localization microscopy
5.3 Near-field excitation microscopy
5.3.1
Aperture scanning near-field optical microscopy
5.4 Near-field detection microscopy
5.4.1
Scanning tunneling optical microscopy
45
45
47
47
49
50
52
53
56
60
64
68
70
75
82
84
86
86
92
94
96
98
100
105
106
107
110
114
118
122
126
128
131
131
134
134
143
145
148
148
150
150
ix
Contents
5.4.2
Field-enhanced near-field microscopy with crossed
polarization
5.5 Near-field excitation and detection microscopy
Field-enhanced near-field microscopy
Double-passage near-field microscopy
5.5.1
5.5.2
Conclusion
5.6
Problems
References
6
7
Localization of light with near-field probes
6.1
6.2
Light propagation in a conical transparent dielectric probe
Fabrication of transparent dielectric probes
6.2.1
Tapered optical fibers
6.3 Aperture probes
Power transmission through aperture probes
Field distribution near small apertures
Field distribution near aperture probes
Enhancement of transmission and directionality
6.3.1
6.3.2
6.3.3
6.3.4
Fabrication of aperture probes
6.4.1
6.4.2
Aperture formation by focused-ion-beam milling
Alternative aperture-formation schemes
6.4
6.5 Optical antenna probes
Solid metal tips
6.5.1
Conclusion
6.6
Problems
References
Probe–sample distance control
Shear-force methods
7.1
7.1.1
7.1.2
7.1.3
7.1.4
7.1.5
Optical fibers as resonating beams
Tuning-fork sensors
The effective-harmonic-oscillator model
Response time
Equivalent electric circuit
7.2 Normal-force methods
7.3
7.2.1
7.2.2
Topographic artifacts
7.3.1
7.3.2
7.3.3
Tuning fork in tapping mode
Bent-fiber probes
Phenomenological theory of artifacts
Example of optical artifacts
Discussion
Problems
References
153
154
154
159
160
160
161
165
165
166
167
170
171
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