KUFFEL, E. (2000). High Voltage Engineering - Fundamentals (2nd ....pdf

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Contents

Preface to Second Edition

Preface to First Edition

Introduction

1.1 Generation and transmission of electric energy

1.2 Voltage stresses

1.3 Testing voltages

1.3.1 Testing with power frequency voltages

1.3.2 Testing with lightning impulse voltages

1.3.3 Testing with switching impulses

1.3.4 D.C. voltages

1.3.5 Testing with very low-frequency voltage

Generation of high voltages

2.1 Direct voltages

2.1.1 A.C. to D.C. conversion

2.1.2 Electrostatic generators

2.2 Alternating voltages

2.2.1 Testing transformers

2.2.2 Series resonant circuits

2.3 Impulse voltages

2.3.1 Impulse voltage generator circuits

2.3.2 Operation, design and construction of impulse generators

2.4 Control systems

Measurement of high voltages

3.1 Peak voltage measurements by spark gaps

3.2 Electrostatic voltmeters

3.3 Ammeter in series with high ohmic resistors and high ohmic resistor voltage dividers

3.4 Generating voltmeters and field sensors

3.5 The measurement of peak voltages

3.6 Voltage dividing systems and impulse voltage measurements

3.7 Fast digital transient recorders for impulse measurements

Electrostatic fields and field stress control

4.1 Electrical field distribution and breakdown strength of insulating materials

4.2 Fields in homogeneous, isotropic materials

4.3 Fields in multidielectric, isotropic materials

4.4 Numerical methods

Electrical breakdown in gases

5.1 Classical gas laws

5.2 Ionization and decay processes

5.3 Cathode processes – secondary effects

5.4 Transition from non-self-sustained discharges to breakdown

5.5 The streamer or ‘Kanal’ mechanism of spark

5.6 The sparking voltage– Paschen’s law

5.7 Penning effect

5.8 The breakdown field strength (

5.9 Breakdown in non-uniform fields

5.10 Effect of electron attachment on the breakdown criteria

5.11 Partial breakdown, corona discharges

5.12 Polarity effect – influence of space charge

5.13 Surge breakdown voltage– time lag

Breakdown in solid and liquid dielectrics

6.1 Breakdown in solids

6.2 Breakdown in liquids

6.3 Static electrification in power transformers

Non-destructive insulation test techniques

7.1 Dynamic properties of dielectrics

7.2 Dielectric loss and capacitance measurements

7.3 Partial-discharge measurements

Overvoltages, testing procedures and insulation coordination

8.1 The lightning mechanism

8.2 Simulated lightning surges for testing

8.3 Switching surge test voltage characteristics

8.4 Laboratory high-voltage testing procedures and statistical treatment of results

8.5 Weighting of the measured breakdown probabilities

8.6 Insulation coordination

8.7 Modern power systems protection devices

Design and testing of external insulation

9.1 Operation in a contaminated environment

9.2 Flashover mechanism of polluted insulators under a. c. and d. c.

9.3 Measurements and tests

9.4 Mitigation of contamination flashover

9.5 Design of insulators

9.6 Testing and specifications

Index

High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals

High Voltage Engineering Fundamentals Second edition E. Kuffel Dean Emeritus, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada W.S. Zaengl Professor Emeritus, Electrical Engineering Dept., Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland J. Kuffel Manager of High Voltage and Current Laboratories, Ontario Hydro Technologies, Toronto, Canada Newnes OXFORD AUCKLAND BOSTON JOHANNESBURG MELBOURNE NEW DELHI

Newnes An imprint of Butterworth-Heinemann Linacre House, Jordan Hill, Oxford OX2 8DP 225 Wildwood Avenue, Woburn, MA 01801-2041 A division of Reed Educational and Professional Publishing Ltd First published 1984 by Pergamon Press Reprinted 1986 Second edition 2000, published by Butterworth-Heinemann  E. Kuffel and W.S. Zaengl 1984  E. Kuffel, W.S. Zaengl and J. Kuffel 2000 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any material form (including photocopying or storing in any medium by electronic means and whether or not transiently or incidentally to some other use of this publication) without the written permission of the copyright holder except in accordance with the provisions of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 or under the terms of a licence issued by the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd, 90 Tottenham Court Road, London, England W1P 9HE. Applications for the copyright holder’s written permission to reproduce any part of this publication should be addressed to the publishers British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress ISBN 0 7506 3634 3 Typeset by Laser Words, Madras, India Printed in Great Britain

Contents Preface to second edition Preface to ﬁrst edition xi xv Chapter 1 Introduction 1 1.1 Generation and transmission of electric energy 1 1.2 Voltage stresses 1.3 Testing voltages 3 5 1.3.1 Testing with power frequency voltages 1.3.2 Testing with lightning impulse voltages 1.3.3 Testing with switching impulses 6 1.3.4 D.C. voltages 1.3.5 Testing with very low frequency voltage 6 5 5 7 References 7 Chapter 2 Generation of high voltages 8 2.1 Direct voltages 9 2.1.1 A.C. to D.C. conversion 2.1.2 Electrostatic generators 10 24 2.2 Alternating voltages 29 2.2.1 Testing transformers 2.2.2 Series resonant circuits 32 40 2.3 Impulse voltages 48 2.3.1 Impulse voltage generator circuits 2.3.2 Operation, design and construction of impulse generators 52 66 2.4 Control systems 74 References 75 Chapter 3 Measurement of high voltages 77 3.1 Peak voltage measurements by spark gaps 78 3.1.1 Sphere gaps 3.1.2 Reference measuring systems 79 91

vi Contents 3.1.3 Uniform ﬁeld gaps 3.1.4 Rod gaps 93 92 3.2 Electrostatic voltmeters 94 3.3 Ammeter in series with high ohmic resistors and high ohmic resistor voltage dividers 96 3.4 Generating voltmeters and ﬁeld sensors 107 3.5 The measurement of peak voltages 109 3.5.1 The Chubb–Fortescue method 3.5.2 Voltage dividers and passive rectiﬁer circuits 3.5.3 Active peak-reading circuits 3.5.4 High-voltage capacitors for measuring circuits 110 117 113 118 3.6 Voltage dividing systems and impulse voltage measurements 3.6.1 Generalized voltage generation and measuring circuit 3.6.2 Demands upon transfer characteristics of the measuring system 3.6.3 Fundamentals for the computation of the measuring system 3.6.4 Voltage dividers 3.6.5 Interaction between voltage divider and its lead 3.6.6 The divider’s low-voltage arm 129 129 147 163 171 132 139 3.7 Fast digital transient recorders for impulse measurements 175 3.7.1 Principles and historical development of transient digital recorders 176 3.7.2 Errors inherent in digital recorders 3.7.3 Speciﬁcation of ideal A/D recorder and parameters required for h.v. 179 impulse testing 3.7.4 Future trends 183 195 References 196 Chapter 4 Electrostatic ﬁelds and ﬁeld stress control 201 4.1 Electrical ﬁeld distribution and breakdown strength of insulating materials 201 4.2 Fields in homogeneous, isotropic materials 205 4.2.1 The uniform ﬁeld electrode arrangement 4.2.2 Coaxial cylindrical and spherical ﬁelds 4.2.3 Sphere-to-sphere or sphere-to-plane 4.2.4 Two cylindrical conductors in parallel 4.2.5 Field distortions by conducting particles 214 206 209 218 221 4.3 Fields in multidielectric, isotropic materials 225 4.3.1 Simple conﬁgurations 4.3.2 Dielectric refraction 4.3.3 Stress control by ﬂoating screens 227 232 235 4.4 Numerical methods 241 4.4.1 Finite difference method (FDM) 242

4.4.2 Finite element method (FEM) 4.4.3 Charge simulation method (CSM) 4.4.4 Boundary element method 270 246 254 References 278 Chapter 5 Electrical breakdown in gases 281 5.1 Classical gas laws 281 5.1.1 Velocity distribution of a swarm of molecules 5.1.2 The free path of molecules and electrons 5.1.3 Distribution of free paths 5.1.4 Collision-energy transfer 290 291 284 287 5.2 Ionization and decay processes 294 295 301 5.2.1 Townsend ﬁrst ionization coefﬁcient 5.2.2 Photoionization 5.2.3 Ionization by interaction of metastables with atoms 5.2.4 Thermal ionization 5.2.5 Deionization by recombination 5.2.6 Deionization by attachment–negative ion formation 5.2.7 Mobility of gaseous ions and deionization by diffusion 5.2.8 Relation between diffusion and mobility 314 302 302 Contents vii 301 304 308 5.3 Cathode processes – secondary effects 317 316 5.3.1 Photoelectric emission 5.3.2 Electron emission by positive ion and excited atom impact 5.3.3 Thermionic emission 5.3.4 Field emission 5.3.5 Townsend second ionization coefﬁcient 5.3.6 Secondary electron emission by photon impact 321 319 318 323 317 5.4 Transition from non-self-sustained discharges to breakdown 324 5.4.1 The Townsend mechanism 324 5.5 The streamer or ‘Kanal’ mechanism of spark 326 5.6 The sparking voltage–Paschen’s law 333 5.7 Penning effect 339 5.8 The breakdown ﬁeld strength (Eb) 340 5.9 Breakdown in non-uniform ﬁelds 342 5.10 Effect of electron attachment on the breakdown criteria 345 5.11 Partial breakdown, corona discharges 348 5.11.1 Positive or anode coronas 5.11.2 Negative or cathode corona 349 352 5.12 Polarity effect – inﬂuence of space charge 354 5.13 Surge breakdown voltage–time lag 359

viii Contents 5.13.1 Breakdown under impulse voltages 5.13.2 Volt–time characteristics 361 5.13.3 Experimental studies of time lags 360 362 References 365 Chapter 6 Breakdown in solid and liquid dielectrics 6.1 Breakdown in solids 367 367 368 6.1.1 Intrinsic breakdown 373 6.1.2 Streamer breakdown 6.1.3 Electromechanical breakdown 6.1.4 Edge breakdown and treeing 375 6.1.5 Thermal breakdown 6.1.6 Erosion breakdown 381 6.1.7 Tracking 385 373 374 6.2 Breakdown in liquids 385 6.2.1 Electronic breakdown 6.2.2 Suspended solid particle mechanism 6.2.3 Cavity breakdown 6.2.4 Electroconvection and electrohydrodynamic model of dielectric 387 390 386 breakdown 391 6.3 Static electriﬁcation in power transformers References 394 393 Chapter 7 Non-destructive insulation test techniques 395 7.1 Dynamic properties of dielectrics 395 7.1.1 Dynamic properties in the time domain 7.1.2 Dynamic properties in the frequency domain 7.1.3 Modelling of dielectric properties 7.1.4 Applications to insulation ageing 407 409 398 404 420 7.2 Dielectric loss and capacitance measurements 411 7.2.1 The Schering bridge 7.2.2 Current comparator bridges 7.2.3 Loss measurement on complete equipment 7.2.4 Null detectors 412 421 417 421 423 7.3 Partial-discharge measurements 7.3.1 The basic PD test circuit 7.3.2 PD currents 7.3.3 PD measuring systems within the PD test circuit 433 7.3.4 Measuring systems for apparent charge 7.3.5 Sources and reduction of disturbances 448 7.3.6 Other PD quantities 7.3.7 Calibration of PD detectors in a complete test circuit 450 427 429 452

Contents ix 7.3.8 Digital PD instruments and measurements 453 References 456 Chapter 8 Overvoltages, testing procedures and insulation coordination 460 8.1 The lightning mechanism 8.1.1 Energy in lightning 8.1.2 Nature of danger 460 464 465 8.2 Simulated lightning surges for testing 466 8.3 Switching surge test voltage characteristics 468 8.4 Laboratory high-voltage testing procedures and statistical treatment of results 472 473 472 8.4.1 Dielectric stress–voltage stress 8.4.2 Insulation characteristics 8.4.3 Randomness of the appearance of discharge 8.4.4 Types of insulation 8.4.5 Types of stress used in high-voltage testing 8.4.6 Errors and conﬁdence in results 8.4.7 Laboratory test procedures 8.4.8 Standard test procedures 8.4.9 Testing with power frequency voltage 8.4.10 Distribution of measured breakdown probabilities (conﬁdence in 473 473 479 484 473 479 484 measured PV) 485 8.4.11 Conﬁdence intervals in breakdown probability (in measured values) 487 8.5 Weighting of the measured breakdown probabilities 489 8.5.1 Fitting of the best ﬁt normal distribution 489 8.6 Insulation coordination 8.6.1 Insulation level 8.6.2 Statistical approach to insulation coordination 8.6.3 Correlation between insulation and protection levels 492 492 495 498 8.7 Modern power systems protection devices 500 8.7.1 MOA – metal oxide arresters 500 References 507 Chapter 9 Design and testing of external insulation 509 9.1 Operation in a contaminated environment 9.2 Flashover mechanism of polluted insulators under a.c. and d.c. 509 9.2.1 Model for ﬂashover of polluted insulators 511 510 9.3 Measurements and tests 512 9.3.1 Measurement of insulator dimensions 513

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