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Modern Compiler Design

Dick Grune • Kees van Reeuwijk • Henri E. BalModern Compiler DesignSecond EditionCeriel J.H. Jacobs • Koen Langendoen

Dick Grune Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Kees van Reeuwijk Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Henri E. Bal Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Ceriel J.H. Jacobs Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, The Netherlands Koen Langendoen Delft University of Technology Delft, The Netherlands Additional material to this book can be downloaded from http://extras.springer.com. -9 er: 2012941168 ISBN 978-1-4614-4699- 6 (eBook) - 1 4614 4698 1 4614-4699-6 ISBN 978- - DOI 10.1007/978- - Springer New York Heidelberg Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Numb © Springer Science+Business Media New York 2012 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only unde r the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in thi does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exemp protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be tru e and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com) s publication t from the relevant

PrefaceTwelveyearshavepassedsincetheﬁrsteditionofModernCompilerDesign.Formanycomputersciencesubjectsthiswouldbemorethanalifetime,butsincecom-pilerdesignisprobablythemostmaturecomputersciencesubject,itisdifferent.Anadultpersondevelopsmoreslowlyanddifferentlythanatoddlerorateenager,andsodoescompilerdesign.Thepresentbookreﬂectsthat.Improvementstothebookfallintotwogroups:presentationandcontent.The‘lookandfeel’ofthebookhasbeenmodernized,butmoreimportantlywehaverearrangedsigniﬁcantpartsofthebooktopresenttheminamorestructuredmanner:largechaptershavebeensplitandtheoptimizingcodegenerationtechniqueshavebeencollectedinaseparatechapter.Basedonreaderfeedbackandexperiencesinteachingfromthisbook,bothbyourselvesandothers,materialhasbeenexpanded,clariﬁed,modiﬁed,ordeletedinalargenumberofplaces.Wehopethatasaresultofthisthereaderfeelsthatthebookdoesabetterjobofmakingcompilerdesignandconstructionaccessible.Thebookaddsnewmaterialtocoverthedevelopmentsincompilerdesignandconstructionoverthelasttwelveyears.Overallthestandardcompilingtechniquesandparadigmshavestoodthetestoftime,butstillnewandoftensurprisingopti-mizationtechniqueshavebeeninvented;existingoneshavebeenimproved;andoldoneshavegainedprominence.Examplesoftheﬁrstare:proceduralabstraction,inwhichroutinesarerecognizedinthecodeandreplacedbyroutinecallstoreducesize;binaryrewriting,inwhichoptimizationsareappliedtothebinarycode;andjust-in-timecompilation,inwhichpartsofthecompilationaredelayedtoimprovetheperceivedspeedoftheprogram.Anexampleofthesecondisatechniquewhichextendsoptimalcodegenerationthroughexhaustivesearch,previouslyavailablefortinyblocksonly,tomoderate-sizebasicblocks.Andanexampleofthethirdistailrecursionremoval,indispensableforthecompilationoffunctionallanguages.ThesedevelopmentsaremainlydescribedinChapter9.Althoughsyntaxanalysisistheonebutoldestbranchofcompilerconstruction(lexicalanalysisbeingtheoldest),eveninthatareainnovationhastakenplace.Generalized(non-deterministic)LRparsing,developedbetween1984and1994,isnowusedincompilers.ItiscoveredinSection3.5.8.Newhardwarerequirementshavenecessitatednewcompilerdevelopments.Themainexamplesaretheneedforsizereductionoftheobjectcode,bothtoﬁtthecodeintosmallembeddedsystemsandtoreducetransmissiontimes;andforlowerpowerv

viPrefaceconsumption,toextendbatterylifeandtoreduceelectricitybills.Dynamicmemoryallocationinembeddedsystemsrequiresabalancebetweenspeedandthrift,andthequestionishowcompilerdesigncanhelp.ThesesubjectsarecoveredinSections9.2,9.3,and10.2.8,respectively.Withagecomeslegacy.Thereismuchlegacycodearound,codewhichissooldthatitcannolongerbemodiﬁedandrecompiledwithreasonableeffort.Ifthesourcecodeisstillavailablebutthereisnocompileranymore,recompilationmuststartwithagrammarofthesourcecode.Forﬁftyyearsprogrammersandcompilerdesignershaveusedgrammarstoproduceandanalyzeprograms;nowlargelegacyprogramsareusedtoproducegrammarsforthem.TherecoveryofthegrammarfromlegacysourcecodeisdiscussedinSection3.6.Ifjustthebinaryexecutableprogramisleft,itmustbedisassembledorevendecompiled.Forﬁftyyearscom-pilerdesignershavebeencalledupontodesigncompilersandassemblerstoconvertsourceprogramstobinarycode;nowtheyarecalledupontodesigndisassemblersanddecompilers,torollbacktheassemblyandcompilationprocess.TherequiredtechniquesaretreatedinSections8.4and8.5.ThebibliographyTheliteraturelisthasbeenupdated,butitsusefulnessismorelimitedthanbefore,fortworeasons.Theﬁrstisthatbythetimeitappearsinprint,theInternetcanpro-videmoreup-to-dateandmoreto-the-pointinformation,inlargerquantities,thanaprintedtextcanhopetoachieve.Itisourcontentionthatanybodywhohasunder-stoodalargerpartoftheideasexplainedinthisbookisabletoevaluateInternetinformationoncompilerdesign.Thesecondisthatmanyofthepaperswerefertoareavailableonlytothosefortunateenoughtohaveloginfacilitiesataninstitutewithsufﬁcientbudgettoobtainsubscriptionstothelargerpublishers;theyarenolongeravailabletojustanyonewhowalksintoauniversitylibrary.Bothphenomenapointtoparadigmshiftswithwhichreaders,authors,publishersandlibrarianswillhavetocope.ThestructureofthebookThisbookisconceptuallydividedintotwoparts.Theﬁrst,comprisingChapters1through10,isconcernedwithtechniquesforprogramprocessingingeneral;itin-cludesachapteronmemorymanagement,bothinthecompilerandinthegeneratedcode.Thesecondpart,Chapters11through14,coversthespeciﬁctechniquesre-quiredbythevariousprogrammingparadigms.Theinteractionsbetweenthepartsofthebookareoutlinedintheadjacenttable.Theleftmostcolumnshowsthefourphasesofcompilerconstruction:analysis,contexthandling,synthesis,andrun-timesystems.Chaptersinthiscolumncoverboththemanualandtheautomaticcreation

Prefaceviiofthepertinentsoftwarebuttendtoemphasizeautomaticgeneration.Theothercolumnsshowthefourparadigmscoveredinthisbook;foreachparadigmanex-ampleofasubjecttreatedbyeachofthephasesisshown.Thesechapterstendtocontainmanualtechniquesonly,allautomatictechniqueshavingbeendelegatedtoChapters2through9.inimperativeandobject-orientedprograms(Chapter11)infunctionalprograms(Chapter12)inlogicprograms(Chapter13)inparallel/distributedprograms(Chapter14)Howtodo:analysis(Chapters2&3)−−−−−−−−contexthandling(Chapters4&5)identiﬁeridentiﬁcationpolymorphictypecheckingstaticrulematchingLindastaticanalysissynthesis(Chapters6–9)codeforwhile-statementcodeforlistcomprehensionstructureuniﬁcationmarshalingrun-timesystems(nochapter)stackreductionmachineWarrenAbstractMachinereplicationThescientiﬁcmindwouldlikethetabletobeniceandsquare,withallboxesﬁlled—inshort“orthogonal”—butweseethatthetoprightentriesaremissingandthatthereisnochapterfor“run-timesystems”intheleftmostcolumn.Thetoprightentrieswouldcoversuchthingsasthespecialsubjectsintheprogramtextanalysisoflogiclanguages,butpresenttextanalysistechniquesarepowerfulandﬂexibleenoughandlanguagessimilarenoughtohandlealllanguageparadigms:thereisnothingtobesaidthere,forlackofproblems.Thechaptermissingfromtheleftmostcolumnwoulddiscussmanualandautomatictechniquesforcreatingrun-timesystems.Unfortunatelythereislittleornotheoryonthissubject:run-timesystemsarestillcraftedbyhandbyprogrammersonanintuitivebasis;thereisnothingtobesaidthere,forlackofsolutions.Chapter1introducesthereadertocompilerdesignbyexaminingasimpletradi-tionalmodularcompiler/interpreterindetail.Severalhigh-levelaspectsofcompilerconstructionarediscussed,followedbyashorthistoryofcompilerconstructionandintroductionstoformalgrammarsandclosurealgorithms.Chapters2and3treattheprogramtextanalysisphaseofacompiler:theconver-sionoftheprogramtexttoanabstractsyntaxtree.Techniquesforlexicalanalysis,lexicalidentiﬁcationoftokens,andsyntaxanalysisarediscussed.Chapters4and5coverthesecondphaseofacompiler:contexthandling.Sev-eralmethodsofcontexthandlingarediscussed:automatedonesusingattributegrammars,manualonesusingL-attributedandS-attributedgrammars,andsemi-automatedonesusingsymbolicinterpretationanddata-ﬂowanalysis.

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