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Cognition, Brain, and Consciousness 2nd ed.pdf
Cover
Cognition, brain, and consciousness
Copyright page
Contents
Preface
Chapter 1 Mind and brain
1.0 Introduction
2.0 An invitation to mind-brain science
3.0 Some starting points
3.1 Distance: seven orders of magnitude
3.2 Time: ten orders of magnitude
3.3 The need to make inferences – going beyond the raw observations
3.4 The importance of convergent measures
3.5 Major landmarks of the brain
4.0 Some history, and ongoing debates
4.1 The mind and the brain
4.2 Biology shapes cognition and emotion
4.3 Cajal's neuron doctrine: the working assumption of brain science
4.4 Pierre-Paul Broca and the localization of speech production
4.5 The conscious and unconscious mind
5.0 The return of consciousness in the sciences
5.1 How conscious and unconscious brain events are studied today
5.2 History hasn't stopped
6.0 Summary
7.0 End of chapter exercises
7.1 Study questions
7.2 Drawing exercise
Chapter 2 A framework
1.0 Introduction
2.0 Classical working memory
2.1 The 'inner senses'
2.2 Output functions
2.3 Only a fleeting moment...
2.4 Understanding Clive Wearing in the functional framework
2.5 The importance of immediate memory
3.0 Limited and large-capacity functions
3.1 Dual task limits
3.2 Some very large brain capacities
3.3 Why are there such narrow capacity limits?
3.4 Measuring working memory
4.0 The inner and outer senses
4.1 The mind's eye, ear, and voice
4.2 The imagery sketchpad may use visual regions of cortex
4.3 Is inner speech like outer speech?
4.4 Is there only one working memory?
5.0 The central executive
5.1 Executive effort and automaticity
5.2 Executive and spontaneous attention
6.0 Action
7.0 Consolidation of short-term events into long-term memory
7.1 Is working memory just re-activated permanent memory?
8.0 Summary
9.0 Study questions and drawing practice
9.1 Study questions
9.2 Drawing exercises
Chapter 3 Neurons and their connections
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Real and idealized neurons
1.2 Excitation and inhibition
1.3 Neural computation
2.0 Working assumptions
2.1 Starting simple: receptors, pathways, and circuits
3.0 Arrays and maps
3.1 Maps flow into other maps
3.2 Neuronal arrays usually have two-way connections
3.3 Sensory and motor systems work together
3.4 Temporal codes: spiking patterns and brain rhythms
3.5 Choice-points in the flow of information
3.6 Top-down or expectation-driven processing
4.0 How neural arrays adapt and learn
4.1 Hebbian learning: 'Neurons that fire together, wire together'
4.2 Neural Darwinism: survival of the fittest cells and synapses
4.3 Symbolic processing and neural nets
5.0 Coordinating neural nets
5.1 Functional redundancy
6.0 Summary
7.0 Study questions and drawing exercises
7.1 Study questions
7.2 Drawing exercises
Chapter 4 The tools: Imaging the living brain
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Brain recording: more and less direct measurements
1.2 The time-space tradeoff
2.0 A range of useful tools – measuring electric and magnetic signals
2.1 Single-unit recording
2.2 Animal and human studies cast light on each other
2.3 Electroencephalography (EEG)
2.4 Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
2.5 Zapping the brain
3.0 Functional neuroimaging: a bold new world
3.1 Regions of interest
3.2 The resting brain is not silent: intrinsic brain processes
3.3 Empirically defining cognitive functions: the creative key
4.0 New ways to measure brain connectivity: diffusion tensor imaging
5.0 Conscious versus unconscious brain events
6.0 Correlation and causation
6.1 Why we need multiple tests of brain function
6.2 Brain damage and causal inferences
7.0 Summary
8.0 Chapter review
8.1 Drawing exercises and study questions
Chapter 5 The brain
1.0 Introduction
1.1 The nervous system
1.2 The geography of the brain
2.0 Growing a brain from the bottom up
2.1 Evolution and personal history are expressed in the brain
2.2 Building a brain from bottom to top
3.0 From 'where' to 'what': the functional roles of brain regions
3.1 The cerebral hemispheres: the left-right division
3.2 Output and input: the front-back division
3.3 The major lobes: visible and hidden
3.4 The massive interconnectivity of the cortex and thalamus
3.5 The satellites of the subcortex
4.0 Summary
5.0 Chapter review
5.1 Study questions
5.2 Drawing exercises
Chapter 6 Vision
1.0 Introduction
1.1 The mystery of visual experience
1.2 The purpose of vision: knowing what is where
1.3 Knowing what: perceiving features, groups, and objects
1.4 Knowing where things are
2.0 Functional organization of the visual system
2.1 The retina
2.2 Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN)
2.3 Primary – or striate – visual cortex (V1)
2.4 Extrastriate visual areas – outside of V1
2.5 Area MT
2.6 The ventral and dorsal pathways: knowing what and where
2.7 Areas involved in object recognition
2.8 Lateral occipital complex (LOC)
2.9 Fusiform face area (FFA)
2.10 Parahippocampal place area (PPA)
3.0 Theories of visual consciousness: where does it happen?
3.1 Hierarchical and interactive theories of vision
4.0 Brain areas necessary for visual awareness: lesion studies
4.1 Consequences of damage to early visual areas
4.2 Extrastriate lesions – damage outside area V1
4.3 Damage to ventral object areas
4.4 Damage to dorsal parietal areas
5.0 Linking brain activity and visual experience
5.1 Multistable perception
5.2 Binocular rivalry: what you see is what you get activated
5.3 Visual detection: did you see it?
5.4 Constructive perception: more to vision than meets the eye...
5.5 Neural correlates of object recognition
6.0 Manipulations of visual awareness
6.1 Transcranial magnetic stimulation
6.2 Unconscious perception
7.0 Summary
8.0 Study questions and drawing exercises
Chapter 7 Hearing and speech
1.0 Introduction
1.1 A model for sound processing
1.2 Sound and hearing basics
2.0 The central auditory system
2.1 Auditory pathways
2.2 Auditory cortex
3.0 Functional mapping of auditory processing
3.1 Primary auditory cortex
3.2 The role of the planum temporale in sound decoding
3.3 Cortical auditory 'what' and 'where' systems
4.0 Speech perception
4.1 Background and history
4.2 Early theories of speech perception
4.3 Functional mapping of speech-specific processes
4.4 The link between speech perception and production
4.5 Damage to speech perceptual systems
4.6 A working model for speech perception in the brain
5.0 Music perception
5.1 Stages of music processing
5.2 A separate system for music perception?
6.0 Learning and plasticity
6.1 Plasticity due to deprivation
6.2 Plasticity due to learning
6.3 Plasticity due to expertise
7.0 Auditory awareness and imagery
7.1 Auditory awareness during sleep and sedation
7.2 Auditory imagery
8.0 Summary
9.0 Chapter review
9.1 Study questions
9.2 Drawing exercise
9.3 Exploring more
Chapter 8 Consciousness and attention
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Waking cognition is consciously mediated
1.2 The need for timely waking, sleep, and dreaming
1.3 Global rhythms of circadian states
1.4 States of consciousness have characteristic thalamocortical activity
1.5 The thalamocortical core: massively interlinked and very active
1.6 Maps and rhythms
1.7 Two-way connections
1.8 How neurons synchronize
1.9 Synchrony for gain control
2.0 Waking
2.1 Realistic thinking
2.2 Orientation to place, time, and persons
2.3 Waking is for learning; sleep enables memory consolidation
2.4 Attention and consciousness commonly enable learning
2.5 Losing consciousness of predictable routines
2.6 Implicit learning requires consciousness, too
2.7 Fast rhythms coordinate waking tasks
2.8 Gamma activity has multiple roles
2.9 Gamma synchrony may bind visual features into conscious objects
2.10 Theta rhythms have multiple roles
2.11 Alpha rhythms
3.0 Attention enhances perception, cognition, and learning
3.1 The Posner flanker task
3.2 A model of attention
3.3 Attention versus conscious experiences
4.0 REM dreams
4.1 Dreaming as a conscious state
4.2 Memory consolidation in REM
5.0 Deep sleep: ups and downs
5.1 Some mental activity occurs even in slow-wave sleep
5.2 The arousal threshold changes during sleep
5.3 Memory replay and consolidation
6.0 Putting it all together
6.1 Does consciousness reflect a global workspace function in the brain?
6.2 Reentrant signaling and complexity in conscious brain events
6.3 Does consciousness require an experiencing self?
6.4 Why are conscious events reportable?
6.5 Evidence for unusual states
7.0 Summary
8.0 Study questions
Chapter 9 Learning and memory
1.0 Introduction
1.1 A functional overview
1.2 Learning and memory in the functional framework
1.3 Implicit and explicit memory
2.0 Amnesia
2.1 HM: the best-studied amnesia patient
2.2 A summary of amnesia
2.3 Spared functions in amnesia: implicit and procedural memory
2.4 Spared implicit learning
3.0 Memories are made of this
3.1 Electrically evoked autobiographical memories
3.2 Long-term potentiation and long-term depression: excitatory and inhibitory memory traces
3.3 Consolidation: from temporary to permanent storage
3.4 Rapid consolidation: synaptic mechanisms, gene transcription, and protein synthesis
3.5 System consolidation: interaction between the medial temporal lobes and neocortex
4.0 Varieties of memory
4.1 Episodic and semantic memory: 'remembering' versus 'knowing'
4.2 Episodic memories may turn into semantic memories over time
4.3 Episodic and semantic memory are often combined
5.0 MTL in explicit learning and memory
5.1 Divided attention interferes with learning
6.0 Prefrontal cortex, consciousness, and working memory
6.1 Working with memory: the frontal lobe works purposefully with memory
6.2 Prefrontal cortex in explicit (conscious) and implicit (unconscious) learning and memory
6.3 Different types of working memory
6.4 Prefrontal cortex – storage or process control?
6.5 Combining prefrontal and MTL regions for working memory
7.0 Retrieval and metacognition
7.1 False retrieval
7.2 Hemispheric lateralization in retrieval
7.3 Theta rhythms may coordinate memory retrieval
8.0 Other kinds of learning
9.0 Summary
10.0 Drawings and study questions
Chapter 10 Thinking and problem solving
1.0 Working memory
1.1 Working memory overlaps with attention, conscious events, and episodic recall
2.0 Explicit problem solving
2.1 Executive control in problem solving
3.0 Mental workload and cortical activity
4.0 Using existing knowledge
4.1 Practice and training may change connectivities in the brain
4.2 Semantic memory
4.3 Abstract concepts, prototypes, and networks
4.4 Knowledge comes in networks
4.5 Conceptual deficits
4.6 Judgments of quantity and number
5.0 Implicit thinking
5.1 Feelings of knowing
6.0 Summary and conclusions
7.0 Drawings and study questions
Chapter 11 Language
1.0 Introduction
2.0 The nature of language
2.1 Biological aspects
2.2 Language origins
2.3 Speech versus language
3.0 The sounds of spoken language
4.0 Planning and producing speech
5.0 Evolutionary aspects of speaking and listening
6.0 Words and meanings
6.1 A cultural treasury of words and ideas
6.2 Recognizing synonyms
6.3 Current evidence about words and their meanings is fragmentary
7.0 Syntax, nesting, and sequencing
8.0 Prosody and melody
9.0 Meaningful statements
10.0 Unified representations of language
11.0 Summary
12.0 Practice drawings and study questions
Chapter 12 Goals, executive control, and action
1.0 Introduction
1.1 The many and complex frontal lobe functions
1.2 From the silent lobes to the organ of civilization
2.0 Phylogeny and ontogeny
2.1 Phylogeny
2.2 Ontogeny
3.0 Function overview
3.1 'Memory of the future'
3.2 Self-awareness and executive function
4.0 Closer look at frontal lobes
4.1 Neuroanatomy and neurophysiology of the frontal lobes
4.2 How prefrontal cortex is defined
4.3 The vast connective highways of the frontal lobes
5.0 A closer look at frontal lobe function
5.1 Executive functions
5.2 Social maturity and moral development
6.0 Neuroimaging the executive brain
6.1 Attention and perception
6.2 Working memory
6.3 Executive function and motor control
6.4 Decision-making
6.5 Rule adoption
7.0 Frontal lobe dysfunction
7.1 The fragile frontal lobes
7.2 Frontal lobe syndromes
7.3 Frontal lobe damage and asocial behavior
7.4 Other clinical conditions associated with frontal lobe damage
8.0 A current view of organizing principles of the frontal lobes
9.0 Toward a unified theory of executive control: a conclusion
10.0 Drawing exercises and study questions
Chapter 13 Emotion
1.0 Introduction
1.1 The triune brain
1.2 Basic emotions and the role of reflective consciousness
2.0 Panksepp's emotional brain systems
2.1 Feelings of emotion
3.0 The FEAR system
3.1 Conscious and unconscious fear processing: LeDoux's high road and low road
3.2 Fear without awareness
3.3 Affective blindsight
3.4 Cognition-emotion interactions in fear responses
3.5 Implicit emotional learning and memory
3.6 Emotional modulation of explicit memory
3.7 Emotional influences on perception and attention
3.8 Emotion and social behavior
3.9 Emotion inhibition and regulation
4.0 The reward system: liking, wanting, learning
4.1 Re-interpreting 'reward': from reward to reward prediction to reward prediction error
4.2 Reward is more than learning
4.3 'Reward pathway' and drug use
4.4 Reward cues influence attention
5.0 Summary
6.0 Chapter review
6.1 Study questions
6.2 Drawing exercises
Chapter 14 Social cognition: Perceiving the mental states of others
1.0 Overview
1.1 Terms that are used to refer to social cognition
1.2 The importance of perspective: the first, second, and third person
1.3 Approaches to perceiving others' minds
2.0 An organizing framework for social cognition
2.1 Intention
2.2 Eye detection
2.3 Shared attention
2.4 Higher-order theory of mind
3.0 Mirror neurons and intention detection
3.1 From action to intention
3.2 Eye detection and gaze perception
3.3 Shared attention
3.4 Higher-order TOM abilities
3.5 Social cognition of others like and unlike us: I-It in the brain?
3.6 Face perception
4.0 Summary
5.0 Chapter review
5.1 Study questions
5.2 Drawing exercises
Chapter 15 Development
1.0 Introduction
1.1 New techniques for investigating the developing brain
1.2 The mystery of the developing brain: old questions and new
2.0 Prenatal development: from blastocyst to baby
2.1 Epigenesis
2.2 The anatomy of brain development
2.3 Neural migration
2.4 Nature and nurture revisited
2.5 Prenatal hearing experience: voice and music perception before birth
3.0 The developing brain: a lifetime of change
3.1 The rise and fall of postnatal brain development
3.2 Regional differences in brain development
4.0 Developing mind and brain
4.1 The first year of life: an explosion of growth and development
4.2 Childhood and adolescence: dynamic and staged growth
5.0 Early brain damage and developmental plasticity
6.0 Summary
7.0 Chapter review
7.1 Study questions
Chapter 16 The genes and molecules of cognition
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Basic life molecules are also used for neuronal signaling
1.2 Life uses enzymes
1.3 The same molecule may send different signals
1.4 The blood-brain barrier protects the internal milieu of the brain
1.5 Model organisms
2.0 Genes in evolution, the lifespan, and daily events
2.1 DNA operates over multiple time scales
2.2 Brain development: neurogenesis, then synaptogenesis
2.3 How did you get that big brain?
3.0 Gene expression and regulation
3.1 Information processing in the cell
3.2 Higher-order DNA regulates other DNA
3.3 An error in brain development
3.4 Development-controlling genes
3.5 Gene programming: beyond the central dogma
3.6 The environment can restructure chromatin in the cell nucleus
3.7 Learning as an epigenetic process
4.0 Neurons and glia as signaling cells
4.1 Neurons and synapses as on/off switches
4.2 Chemical self-regulation
4.3 Membranes, ion channels, and axonal spikes
5.0 Synaptic transmission: from production to clean-up
5.1 The big two: glutamate and GABA
5.2 GABA: the major inhibitory transmitter
5.3 Neuroglia may also process information
5.4 Production, release, and disposal of neurotransmitters
5.5 Synaptic release
5.6 Synapses and receptors are traffic control points
5.7 Receptors detect signaling molecules
5.8 Ion channels that are opened by other molecules
5.9 Cleaning up the synapse: deactivation, diffusion, recycling
6.0 Neuromodulators
7.0 Learning
7.1 The hippocampal complex
7.2 Glutamate, GABA, LTP, and LTD
7.3 Glutamate synapses as early models of synaptic learning
7.4 Epigenetics of learning
7.5 Neurotrophic factors in learning
8.0 Summary
9.0 Chapter review
Chapter appendix
Appendix: Methods for observing the living brain
1.0 Historical background
1.1 Correlating brain and mind
1.2 Recording brain activation
2.0 Methods
2.1 Electroencephalography (EEG)
2.2 Magnetoencephalography (MEG)
2.3 Positron emission tomography (PET)
2.4 Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
2.5 MRI – a tool for the future
2.6 Optical imaging
3.0 Multimodal brain imaging
3.1 Simultaneous imaging from different sources
3.2 Imaging genetics
4.0 Concluding remarks
References
Glossary
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
L
M
N
O
P
R
S
T
U
V
W
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
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P
Q
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Z
Color plates
COGNITION, BRAIN, AND CONSCIOUSNESS
SECOND EDITION
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COGNITION, BRAIN, AND
CONSCIOUSNESS
Introduction to Cognitive Neuroscience
Second Edition
BERNARD J. BAARS
NICOLE M. GAGE
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON • NEW YORK • OXFORD
PARIS • SAN DIEGO • SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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© 2010 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden
our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become
necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and
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or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom
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To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any
liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence
or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the
material herein.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Baars , Bernard J.
Cognition , brain, and consciousness : introduction to cognitive neuroscience/Bernard Baars,
Nicole Gage. — 2nd ed.
p . cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-0-12-375070-9 (hardcover : alk. paper)
QP360 .5.B33 2010
612 .8’233—dc22
1. Cognitive neuroscience.
I. Gage, Nicole M.
II. Title.
2009039469
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.
ISBN :978-0-12-375070-9
For color figures, glossary, and study guide, please visit
our companion website: www.baars-gage.com
For information on all Academic Press publications
visit our Web site at www.elsevierdirect.com
Printed in China
10 11 12 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface xiii
Chapter 1 Mind and brain
Contents
3.0 Limited and large-capacity functions 41
3.1 Dual task limits 41
3.2 Some very large brain capacities 43
3.3 Why are there such narrow capacity
limits? 44
3.4 Measuring working memory 44
4.0 The inner and outer senses 46
4.1 The mind’s eye, ear, and voice 47
4.2 The imagery sketchpad may use visual
regions of cortex 49
4.3 Is inner speech like outer speech? 49
4.4 Is there only one working memory? 50
5.0 The central executive 50
6.0 Action 54
7.0 Consolidation of short-term events into
5.1 Executive effort and automaticity 52
5.2 Executive and spontaneous attention 53
Introduction 3
1.0
2.0 An invitation to mind-brain science 3
3.0 Some starting points 4
3.1 Distance: seven orders of magnitude 4
3.2 Time: ten orders of magnitude 6
3.3 The need to make inferences – going beyond
the raw observations 7
3.4 The importance of convergent measures 10
3.5 Major landmarks of the brain 10
4.0 Some history, and ongoing debates 13
4.1 The mind and the brain 13
4.2 Biology shapes cognition and emotion 14
4.3 Cajal’s neuron doctrine: the working
assumption of brain science 16
4.4 Pierre-Paul Broca and the localization of
long-term memory 57
7.1 Is working memory just re-activated
speech production 18
4.5 The conscious and unconscious mind 20
5.0 The return of consciousness in the sciences 25
5.1 How conscious and unconscious brain events
are studied today 27
permanent memory? 58
8.0 Summary 59
9.0 Study questions and drawing practice 60
9.1 Study questions 60
9.2 Drawing exercises 60
5.2 History hasn’t stopped 28
6.0 Summary 29
7.0 End of chapter exercises 30
7.1 Study questions 30
7.2 Drawing exercise 31
Chapter 2 A framework
Introduction 33
1.0
2.0 Classical working memory 34
2.1 The ‘inner senses’ 35
2.2 Output functions 36
2.3 Only a fleeting moment . . . 36
2.4 Understanding Clive Wearing in the
functional framework 39
2.5 The importance of immediate memory 40
v
Chapter 3 Neurons and their connections
Introduction 63
1.1 Real and idealized neurons 64
1.2 Excitation and inhibition 65
1.3 Neural computation 68
1.0
2.0 Working assumptions 68
2.1 Starting simple: receptors, pathways, and
circuits 69
3.0 Arrays and maps 71
3.1 Maps flow into other maps 75
3.2 Neuronal arrays usually have two-way
connections 75
3.3 Sensory and motor systems work
together 75
vi
3.4 Temporal codes: spiking patterns and
brain rhythms 76
3.5 Choice-points in the flow of
information 80
3.6 Top-down or expectation-driven
processing 81
4.0 How neural arrays adapt and learn 83
4.1 Hebbian learning: ‘Neurons that fire
together, wire together’ 83
4.2 Neural Darwinism: survival of the fittest
cells and synapses 85
5.1 Functional redundancy 91
4.3 Symbolic processing and neural nets 87
5.0 Coordinating neural nets 88
6.0 Summary 91
7.0
Study questions and drawing exercises 92
7.1 Study questions 92
7.2 Drawing exercises 92
CONTENTS
Chapter 5 The brain
Introduction 127
1.1 The nervous system 128
1.2 The geography of the brain 129
1.0
2.0 Growing a brain from the bottom up 133
2.1 Evolution and personal history are
expressed in the brain 133
2.2 Building a brain from bottom to top 134
3.0 From ‘where’ to ‘what’: the functional roles
of brain regions 136
3.1 The cerebral hemispheres: the left-right
division 136
3.2 Output and input: the front-back
division 143
3.3 The major lobes: visible and hidden 145
3.4 The massive interconnectivity of the cortex
and thalamus 149
3.5 The satellites of the subcortex 151
4.0 Summary 153
5.0 Chapter review 153
5.1 Study questions 153
5.2 Drawing exercises 153
Chapter 6 Vision
1.0
Introduction 157
1.1 The mystery of visual experience 157
1.2 The purpose of vision: knowing what is
where 158
1.3 Knowing what: perceiving features, groups,
and objects 159
1.4 Knowing where things are 160
2.0 Functional organization of the visual
system 160
2.1 The retina 160
2.2 Lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN) 163
2.3 Primary – or striate – visual
cortex (V1) 164
2.4 Extrastriate visual areas – outside
of V1 166
2.5 Area MT 166
2.6 The ventral and dorsal pathways: knowing
what and where 167
2.7 Areas involved in object recognition 169
2.8 Lateral occipital complex (LOC) 169
2.9 Fusiform face area (FFA) 169
2.10 Parahippocampal place area (PPA) 170
3.0 Theories of visual consciousness: where does it
happen? 170
3.1 Hierarchical and interactive theories of
vision 173
Chapter 4 The tools: Imaging the living brain
1.0
Introduction 95
1.1 Brain recording: more and less direct
measurements 96
1.2 The time-space tradeoff 96
2.0 A range of useful tools – measuring electric and
magnetic signals 98
2.1 Single-unit recording 98
2.2 Animal and human studies cast light on
each other 100
2.3 Electroencephalography (EEG) 101
2.4 Magnetoencephalography (MEG) 106
2.5 Zapping the brain 107
3.0 Functional neuroimaging: a bold new
world 113
3.1 Regions of interest 115
3.2 The resting brain is not silent: intrinsic
brain processes 118
3.3 Empirically defining cognitive functions:
the creative key 119
4.0 New ways to measure brain connectivity:
diffusion tensor imaging 121
5.0 Conscious versus unconscious brain
events 121
6.0 Correlation and causation 122
6.1 Why we need multiple tests of brain
function 123
6.2 Brain damage and causal inferences 124
7.0 Summary 124
8.0 Chapter review 125
questions 125
8.1 Drawing exercises and study
4.0 Brain areas necessary for visual awareness:
lesion studies 176
4.1 Consequences of damage to early visual
areas 176
CONTENTS
vii
6.2 Plasticity due to learning 231
6.3 Plasticity due to expertise 232
7.0 Auditory awareness and imagery 232
7.1 Auditory awareness during sleep and
4.2 Extrastriate lesions – damage outside
sedation 233
area V1 177
4.3 Damage to ventral object areas 178
4.4 Damage to dorsal parietal areas 181
5.0 Linking brain activity and visual
experience 182
5.1 Multistable perception 182
5.2 Binocular rivalry: what you see is what you
get activated 182
5.3 Visual detection: did you see it? 185
5.4 Constructive perception: more to vision than
meets the eye . . . 185
5.5 Neural correlates of object recognition 187
6.0 Manipulations of visual awareness 187
7.0 Summary 191
8.0 Study questions and drawing exercises 192
6.1 Transcranial magnetic stimulation 188
6.2 Unconscious perception 189
Chapter 7 Hearing and speech
Introduction 195
1.1 A model for sound processing 196
1.2 Sound and hearing basics 198
1.0
2.0 The central auditory system 202
3.0 Functional mapping of auditory processing 209
3.1 Primary auditory cortex 209
3.2 The role of the planum temporale in sound
2.1 Auditory pathways 203
2.2 Auditory cortex 204
3.3
decoding 209
Cortical auditory ‘what’ and ‘where’
systems 210
4.0 Speech perception 218
4.1 Background and history 218
4.2 Early theories of speech perception 220
4.3 Functional mapping of speech-specific
processes 222
4.4 The link between speech perception and
production 223
4.5 Damage to speech perceptual systems 223
4.6 A working model for speech perception in
the brain 226
5.1 Stages of music processing 229
5.2 A separate system for music perception? 229
5.0 Music perception 229
6.0 Learning and plasticity 231
6.1 Plasticity due to deprivation 231
7.2 Auditory imagery 233
8.0 Summary 235
9.0 Chapter review 236
9.1 Study questions 236
9.2 Drawing exercise 236
9.3 Exploring more 236
Chapter 8 Consciousness and attention
1.0
Introduction 239
1.1 Waking cognition is consciously
mediated 242
1.2 The need for timely waking, sleep, and
dreaming 243
1.3 Global rhythms of circadian states 244
1.4 States of consciousness have characteristic
thalamocortical activity 247
1.5 The thalamocortical core: massively
interlinked and very active 248
1.6 Maps and rhythms 250
1.7 Two-way connections 252
1.8 How neurons synchronize 252
1.9 Synchrony for gain control 254
2.0 Waking 255
2.1 Realistic thinking 256
2.2 Orientation to place, time, and
persons 257
2.3 Waking is for learning; sleep enables
memory consolidation 258
2.4 Attention and consciousness commonly
enable learning 258
2.5 Losing consciousness of predictable
routines 259
2.6 Implicit learning requires consciousness,
too 261
2.7 Fast rhythms coordinate waking
tasks 261
2.8 Gamma activity has multiple roles 262
2.9 Gamma synchrony may bind visual features
into conscious objects 264
2.10 Theta rhythms have multiple roles 268
2.11 Alpha rhythms 269
3.0 Attention enhances perception, cognition, and
learning 270
3.1 The Posner flanker task 271
3.2 A model of attention 274
3.3 Attention versus conscious experiences 278
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