Quad Rotorcraft Control - Vision-Based Hovering andNavigation.pdf

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Quad Rotorcraft Control

Series Editors' Foreword

Foreword

Preface

Acknowledgements

Contents

Chapter 1: Introduction

1.1 Unmanned Aerial Vehicles

1.1.1 Brief History

1.1.2 Applications

1.1.3 UAVs Classiﬁcation

1.2 State of the Art

1.3 Problem Statement

1.4 Contributions

1.5 Book Outline

Chapter 2: Modeling the Quad-Rotor Mini-Rotorcraft

2.1 The Quad-Rotor Mini-Rotorcraft

2.2 Quad-Rotor Dynamical Model

2.2.1 Euler-Lagrange Approach

2.2.2 Newton-Euler Approach

Translational Force and Gravitational Force

Torques

2.2.3 Newton's Equations to Lagrange's Equations

2.2.4 Newton-Euler Approach for an X-type Quad-Rotor

2.3 Concluding Remarks

Chapter 3: The Quad-Rotor Experimental Platform

3.1 General Overview of UAV Sensing Technologies

3.2 System Architecture

3.3 Supervisory Ground Station

3.4 Quad-Rotor Design

3.4.1 Cross-Flyer Design

3.4.2 X-Flyer Design

3.4.3 Improved X-Flyer Design

3.5 Hierarchical Control Strategy

3.5.1 Altitude and Yaw Control

3.5.2 Control of Forward Position and Pitch Angle

3.5.3 Control of Lateral Position and Roll Angle

3.6 Autonomous Hover Flight Experiments

3.6.1 Cross-Flyer Hover Graphics

3.6.2 X-Flyer Hover Graphics

3.6.3 Improved X-Flyer Hover Graphics

3.7 Concluding Remarks

Chapter 4: Hovering Flight Improvement

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Brushless DC Motor and Electronic Speed Controller

4.3 Control Strategy for Attitude Improvement

4.3.1 Attitude Control

4.3.2 Armature Current Control

4.4 Experimental System Conﬁguration

4.4.1 Aerial Vehicle

4.4.2 Supervisory Ground Station

4.5 Experimental Results

4.6 Concluding Remarks

Chapter 5: Imaging Sensors for State Estimation

5.1 Camera Model

Central Projection Using Homogeneous Coordinates

Principal Point Offset

Extrinsic Parameters

Intrinsic Properties

5.1.1 Camera Calibration

Calibration Using a Chessboard

5.2 Stereo Imaging

Triangulation

5.2.1 Epipolar Geometry

The Essential and Fundamental Matrices

Essential Matrix Math

Fundamental Matrix Math

Epipolar Lines

5.2.2 Calibration of the Stereo Imaging System

Stereo Rectiﬁcation

Calibrated Stereo Rectiﬁcation: Bouguet's Algorithm

Calibrating a Stereo Rig Using the Camera Calibration Toolbox for Matlab

5.3 Optical Flow

5.3.1 Computing Methods

5.4 Implementing an Imaging System for the Quad-Rotor UAV

5.4.1 Deported and Embedded Systems

5.4.1.1 Deported Systems

5.4.1.2 Embedded Systems

5.4.2 Challenges when Using Monocular and Stereo Imaging Systems

Monocular Imaging System

Stereo Imaging System

5.4.3 Monocular Imaging System Implementation

5.4.4 Stereo Imaging System Implementation

5.5 Concluding Remarks

Chapter 6: Vision-Based Control of a Quad-Rotor UAV

6.1 Position Stabilization Using Vision

6.1.1 Introduction

6.1.2 Visual System Set-up

6.1.3 Vision-Based Position Estimation

6.1.3.1 Computing the 3-dimensional Position

6.1.3.2 Translational Velocities

6.1.3.3 Prediction of the Landing Pad Position

6.1.4 Control Strategy

6.1.4.1 Altitude and Yaw Control

6.1.4.2 Control of Forward Position and Pitch Angle

6.1.4.3 Control of Lateral Position and Roll Angle

6.1.5 Experimental System Conﬁguration

6.1.6 Experimental Applications

6.1.7 Final Comments

6.2 A Comparison of Nonlinear Controllers Using Visual Feedback

6.2.1 Introduction

6.2.2 System Set-up

6.2.3 Control Strategies

6.2.3.1 Nested Saturations Control

Control of Forward Position and Pitch Angle

Control of Lateral Position and Roll Angle

6.2.3.2 Backstepping Control

Control of Forward Position and Pitch Angle

Control of Lateral Position and Roll Angle

6.2.3.3 Sliding Modes Control

6.2.4 Experimental Applications

6.2.5 Final Comments

6.3 Vision-Based Altitude and Velocity Regulation

6.3.1 Introduction

6.3.2 System Set-up

6.3.3 Image Processing

6.3.3.1 Extracting the Road Zone

6.3.3.2 Altitude and Position

6.3.3.3 Translational Velocities

6.3.4 Control Strategy

6.3.4.1 Altitude and Yaw Subsystems

6.3.4.2 Longitudinal Subsystem

6.3.4.3 Lateral Subsystem

6.3.5 Experimental Application

6.3.6 Final Comments

6.4 Concluding Remarks

Chapter 7: Combining Stereo Imaging, Inertial and Altitude Sensing Systems for the Quad-Rotor

7.1 Estimating Motion

7.1.1 Introduction

7.1.1.1 Related Work

7.1.2 System Setup

7.1.3 Experimental Platform Overview

7.1.3.1 Visual and Inertial Navigation System

7.1.3.2 Supervisory Ground Station

7.1.4 Stereo Visual Odometry

7.1.4.1 Detecting Features

7.1.4.2 3-dimensional Reconstruction

7.1.4.3 Estimating Motion

7.1.5 A Simple Strategy for Imaging, Inertial and Altitude Data Fusion

7.1.6 Experimental Results

7.1.7 Final Comments

7.2 Comparison of Different State Estimation Algorithms for Quad-Rotor Control

7.2.1 Introduction

7.2.2 Problem Statement

7.2.2.1 Measurement Model

7.2.3 Design of Imaging-Inertial State Observers

7.2.3.1 Luenberger State Observer

7.2.3.2 Kalman Filter

7.2.3.3 Complementary Filter

7.2.4 Experimental Results

7.2.5 Final Comments

7.3 Concluding Remarks

Chapter 8: Conclusions and Future Work

8.1 Conclusions

Development of a Well Suited Quad-Rotor Platform

Control System for Improving the Attitude Stabilization

Vision-Based Quad-Rotor Control Using a Monocular Imaging System

Study of Nonlinear Controllers Comparison

Development of an Imaging, Inertial and Altitude Sensing System

Study of Different State Estimation Algorithms

8.2 Future Work

References

Index

Advances in Industrial Control For further volumes: www.springer.com/series/1412

Luis Rodolfo García Carrillo r Alejandro Enrique Dzul López r Rogelio Lozano r Claude Pégard Quad Rotorcraft Control Vision-Based Hovering and Navigation

Luis Rodolfo García Carrillo HEUDIASYC UMR 6599, Centre de Recherches de Royalieu Université de Technologie de Compiègne Compiègne cedex, France Rogelio Lozano UMR-CNRS 6599, Centre de Recherche de Royalieu Université de Technologie de Compiègne Compiègne, France Alejandro Enrique Dzul López División de Estudios de Posgrado Instituto Tecnológico de la Laguna Torreón, Mexico Claude Pégard Laboratoire MIS EA 4290 Université de Picardie Jules Verne Amiens, France ISSN 1430-9491 Advances in Industrial Control ISBN 978-1-4471-4398-7 DOI 10.1007/978-1-4471-4399-4 Springer London Heidelberg New York Dordrecht ISSN 2193-1577 (electronic) ISBN 978-1-4471-4399-4 (eBook) Library of Congress Control Number: 2012945727 © Springer-Verlag London 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, speciﬁcally the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microﬁlms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied speciﬁcally for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a speciﬁc statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of pub- lication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

To our families

Series Editors’ Foreword The series Advances in Industrial Control aims to report and encourage technol- ogy transfer in control engineering. The rapid development of control technology has an impact on all areas of the control discipline. New theory, new controllers, actuators, sensors, new industrial processes, computer methods, new applications, new philosophies. . . , new challenges. Much of this development work resides in industrial reports, feasibility study papers and the reports of advanced collaborative projects. The series offers an opportunity for researchers to present an extended ex- position of such new work in all aspects of industrial control for wider and rapid dissemination. Control engineers and academics have made signiﬁcant contributions to the con- trol of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs). Because of their critical deploy- ment in the offshore industry, this continues to be a strong and developing techno- logical ﬁeld. Turning now to Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs), there is a rather different history of development and deployment. Military applications have been a signiﬁcant driving force for this technological ﬁeld, and civilian applications, de- spite their potential importance, have been muted by comparison. One factor in this has been that unlike the ocean deeps, civilian airspace is populated by large aircraft carrying signiﬁcant numbers of people whose safety cannot be jeopardized by small, possibly unpredictable, UAVs. Consequently licensing UAVs to operate in civilian airspace on a routine basis remains an issue to be resolved. Nonetheless, control engineers and academics have been contributing to the de- velopment of control systems for UAVs and more and more of this work is now appearing in monograph form. The Advances in Industrial Control monograph se- ries has always promoted reports of current applications as well as research work that shows a potential for future application. Consequently within the series there is a small but growing set of monographs that report on the control developments for UAVs, including: 2011 G. Cai, B.M. Chen and T.H. Lee, Unmanned Rotorcraft Systems, ISBN 978- 0-85729-634-4; 2009 G.J.J. Ducard, Fault-tolerant Flight Control and Guidance Systems, ISBN 978-1-84882-560-4; vii

viii Series Editors’ Foreword 2005 P. Castillo, R. Lozano and A.E. Dzul, Modelling and Control of Mini-Flying Machines, ISBN 978-1-85233-957-9; and 2003 A. Isidori, L. Marconi and A. Serrani, Robust Autonomous Guidance, ISBN 978-1-85233-695-0. The series also expects to feature some future monographs in this ﬁeld, including: A. Abdessameud and A. Tayebi, Motion Coordination for Aerial Vehicles (in preparation) Quad Rotorcraft Control: Vision-Based Hovering and Navigation by Luis R. García Carrillo, Alejandro E. Dzul López, Rogelio Lozano, and Claude Pégard now adds to this valuable set of monographs in Advances in Industrial Control. At this point, some clariﬁcation is perhaps needed; rotorcraft take many different guises, some have the well-known “standard” helicopter rotor conﬁguration whilst there are other conﬁgurations such as the aerial vehicle activated by four (quad) sets of rotors. It is a quad rotorcraft that is the focus here. Another key feature of this monograph is the use of vision to control the hovering and navigation functions of the vehicle. The editors of the series have long sought some monographs that report on how vision can be integrated into the control system. Despite a long search, this is the ﬁrst monograph in the series that treats this particular control-technological development. In the monograph the authors use the ﬁrst three chapters to create the frame- work for the research to be reported. This includes an introduction that contains a valuable historical and state-of-the-art review (Chap. 1), a progression of the system modelling aspects (Chap. 2) and a description of the experimental platform and the existing control loops (Chap. 3). From there the authors present their own research: non-vision-based techniques to improve hover performance (Chap. 4), the hardware and implementations for the camera system and image analysis of the vision system (Chap. 5), and vision-based control (Chaps. 6 and 7). Videos of some of the experimental work can be found on YouTube. Finally, the authors present some directions for future research and developments in a concluding chapter (Chap. 8). The monograph presents research that complements existing and future series monographs in on unmanned aerial vehicles. The Editors are very pleased to wel- come this monograph into Advances in Industrial Control and are particularly grat- iﬁed at last to be able to add to the series a work that explores the technology of vision-based control. Industrial Control Centre, Glasgow, Scotland, UK M.J. Grimble M.A. Johnson

Foreword Unmanned Aerial Systems (UAS) have experienced in recent years an important growth both in research activities and in the industrial development of platforms to be used in applications. Today, Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) range from more than ten tonnes weight and tens of meters wingspan, to micro and even nano UAVs with grams of weight and few centimeters, or even millimeters, wing span. The systems with multiple rotors have attracted signiﬁcant attention. The most popular are the quad-rotors but others with six and eight rotors have been devel- oped. These multiple rotor systems are able to hover and have good maneuvering capabilities. From the mechanical point of view they can be considered simpler than helicopters because they do not have the swash-plate and do not need to eliminate the gyroscopic torques created by the spinning motors. Moreover, the rotors develop less energy than the equivalent main rotor of the helicopters and then are safer than helicopters and can be protected to ﬂy in close proximity to people. Thus, they are familiar in many research laboratories and also are becoming attractive for many applications that do not require signiﬁcant payloads. The group led by Prof. Rogelio Lozano at the Université de Compiègne is play- ing a signiﬁcant role in the research and development activities of mini UAV sys- tems, and particularly in quad-rotor technologies and control systems. This book reports doctoral research by the ﬁrst author along with additional contributions and improvements. Modeling is needed for the development of guidance, navigation and control sys- tems, as is also relevant for many applications. The second chapter of this book is devoted to the modeling of quad-rotors. A general overview of the quad-rotor mini-rotorcraft and its operation principle is given. Next, the quad-rotor modeling is addressed using Euler–Lagrange and Newton–Euler methods. The Lagrange equa- tions obtained from Newton’s equations are also shown. Finally, the Newton–Euler modeling for an “X-Flyer” quad-rotor conﬁguration is presented. The third chapter presents an experimental quad-rotor system. This consists of the vehicle and a supervisory ground station where image processing and control algorithms are executed. General details concerning the most common sensing tech- ix

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