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Fundamentals of Power Semiconductor Devices

B. Jayant Baliga Fundamentals of Power Semiconductor Devices 1 3

B. Jayant Baliga Power Semiconductor Research Center North Carolina State University 1010 Main Campus Drive Raleigh, NC 27695-7924 USA e-ISBN 978-0-387-47314-7 ISBN 978-0-387-47313-0 Library of Congress Control Number: 2008923040 © 2008 Springer Science + Business Media, LLC All rights reserved. This work may not be translated or copied in whole or in part without the written permission of the publisher (Springer Science+Business Media, LLC, 233 Spring Street, New York, NY 10013, USA), except for brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis. Use in connection with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed is forbidden. The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks and similar terms, even if they are not identified as such, is not to be taken as an expression of opinion as to whether or not they are subject to proprietary rights. Printed on acid-free paper. 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 springer.com

Dedication The author would like to dedicate this book to his wife, Pratima, for her unwavering support throughout his career devoted to the enhancement of the performance and understanding of power semiconductor devices. v

Preface Today the semiconductor business exceeds $200 billion with about 10% of the revenue derived from power semiconductor devices and smart power integrated circuits. Power semiconductor devices are recognized as a key component for all power electronic systems. It is estimated that at least 50% of the electricity used in the world is controlled by power devices. With the widespread use of electronics in the consumer, industrial, medical, and transportation sectors, power devices have a major impact on the economy because they determine the cost and efficiency of systems. After the initial replacement of vacuum tubes by solid-state devices in the 1950s, semiconductor power devices have taken a dominant role with silicon serving as the base material. These developments have been referred to as the Second Electronic Revolution. Bipolar power devices, such as bipolar transistors and thyristors, were first developed in the 1950s. Because of the many advantages of semiconductor devices compared with vacuum tubes, there was a constant demand for increasing the power ratings of these devices. Their power rating and switching frequency increased with advancements in the understanding of the operating physics, the availability of larger diameter, high resistivity silicon wafers, and the introduction of more advanced lithography capability. During the next 20 years, the technology for the bipolar devices reached a high degree of maturity. By the 1970s, bipolar power transistors with current handling capability of hundreds of amperes and voltage blocking capability of over 500 V became available. More remarkably, technology was developed capable of manufacturing an individual power thyristor from an entire 4-inch diameter silicon wafer with voltage rating over 5,000 V. My involvement with power semiconductor devices began in 1974 when I was hired by the General Electric Company at their corporate research and development center to start a new group to work on this technology. At that time, I had just completed my Ph.D. degree at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute by

1–4 viii FUNDAMENTALS OF POWER SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICES performing research on a novel method for the growth of epitaxial layers of compound semiconductors. Although I wanted to explore this approach after joining the semiconductor industry, I was unable to secure a position at any of the major research laboratories due to a lack of interest in this unproven growth technology. Ironically, the OMCVD epitaxial growth process that I pioneered with Professor Ghandhi has now become the most commonly used method for the growth of high quality compound semiconductor layers for applications such as lasers, LEDs, and microwave transistors. My first assignment at GE was to develop improved processes for the fabrication of high voltage thyristors used in their power distribution business. Since the thyristors were used for high voltage DC transmission and electric locomotive drives, the emphasis was on increasing the voltage rating and current handling capability. The ability to use neutron transmutation doping to produce high resistivity n-type silicon with improved uniformity across large diameter wafers became of interest at this time. I was fortunate in making some of the critical contributions to annealing the damage caused to the silicon lattice during neutron irradiation making this process commercially viable.5 This enabled increasing the blocking voltage of thyristors to over 5,000 V while being able to handle over 2,000 A of current in a single device. Meanwhile, bipolar power transistors were being developed with the goal of increasing the switching frequency in medium power systems. Unfortunately, the current gain of bipolar transistors was found to be low when it was designed for high voltage operation at high current density. The popular solution to this problem, using the Darlington configuration, had the disadvantage of increasing the on-state voltage drop resulting in an increase in the power dissipation. In addition to the large control currents required for bipolar transistors, they suffered from poor safe-operating-area due to second breakdown failure modes. These issues produced a cumbersome design, with snubber networks, that raised the cost and degraded the efficiency of the power control system. In the 1970s, the power MOSFET product was first introduced by International Rectifier Corporation. Although initially hailed as a replacement for all bipolar power devices due to its high input impedance and fast switching speed, the power MOSFET has successfully cornered the market for low voltage (<100 V) and high switching speed (>100 kHz) applications but failed to make serious inroads in the high voltage arena. This is because the on-state resistance of power MOSFETs increases very rapidly with increase in the breakdown voltage. The resulting high conduction losses, even when using larger more expensive die, degrade the overall system efficiency. In recognition of these issues, I proposed two new thrusts in 1979 for the power device field. The first was based upon the merging of MOS and bipolar device physics to create a new category of power devices.6 My most successful innovation among MOS-bipolar devices has been the insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT). Soon after commercial introduction in the early 1980s, the IGBT was adopted for all medium power electronic applications. Today, it is

Preface ix manufactured by more than a dozen companies around the world for consumer, industrial, medical, and other applications that benefit society. The triumph of the IGBT is associated with its huge power gain, high input impedance, wide safe operating area, and a switching speed that can be tailored for applications depending upon their operating frequency. The second approach that I suggested in 1979 for enhancing the performance of power devices was to replace silicon with wide bandgap semiconductors. The basis for this approach was an equation that I derived relating the on-resistance of the drift region in unipolar power devices to the basic properties of the semiconductor material. This equation has since been referred to as Baliga’s figure of merit (BFOM). In addition to the expected reduction in the on-state resistance with higher carrier mobility, the equation predicts a reduction in on-resistance as the inverse of the cube of the breakdown electric field strength of the semiconductor material. The first attempt to develop wide-bandgap-semiconductor-based power devices was undertaken at the General Electric Corporate Research and Development Center, Schenectady, NY, under my direction. The goal was to leverage a 13-fold reduction in specific on-resistance for the drift region predicted by the BFOM for gallium arsenide. A team of ten scientists was assembled to tackle the difficult problems of the growth of high resistivity epitaxial layers, the fabrication of low resistivity ohmic contacts, low leakage Schottky contacts, and the passivation of the GaAs surface. This led to an enhanced understanding of the breakdown strength7 for GaAs and the successful fabrication of high performance Schottky rectifiers8 and MESFETs.9 Experimental verification of the basic thesis of the analysis represented by BFOM was therefore demonstrated during this period. Commercial GaAs-based Schottky rectifier products were subsequently introduced in the market by several companies. In the later half of the 1980s, the technology for the growth of silicon carbide was developed at North Carolina State University (NCSU) with the culmination of commercial availability of wafers from CREE Research Corporation. Although data on the impact ionization coefficients of SiC were not available, early reports on the breakdown voltage of diodes enabled estimation of the breakdown electric field strength. Using these numbers in the BFOM predicted an impressive 100–200-fold reduction in the specific on-resistance of the drift region for SiC-based unipolar devices. In 1988, I joined NCSU and subsequently founded the Power Semiconductor Research Center (PSRC) – an industrial consortium – with the objective of exploring ideas to enhance power device performance. Within the first year of the inception of the program, SiC Schottky barrier rectifiers with breakdown voltage of 400 V were successfully fabricated with on-state voltage drop of about 1 V and no reverse recovery transients.10 By improving the edge termination of these diodes, the breakdown voltage was found to increase to 1,000 V. With the availability of epitaxial SiC material with lower doping concentrations, SiC Schottky rectifiers with breakdown voltages over 2.5 kV have been fabricated at PSRC.11 These results have motivated many other

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