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antenna theory and design.pdf
Front Matter
Preface
Table of Contents
1. Antennas
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Antennas
1.2.1 Wire Antennas
1.2.2 Aperture Antennas
1.2.3 Microstrip Antennas
1.2.4 Array Antennas
1.2.5 Reflector Antennas
1.2.6 Lens Antennas
1.3 Radiation Mechanism
1.3.1 Single Wire
1.3.2 Two-Wires
1.3.3 Dipole
1.3.4 Computer Animation-Visualization of Radiation Problems
1.4 Current Distribution on a Thin Wire Antenna
1.5 Historical Advancement
1.5.1 Antenna Elements
1.5.2 Methods of Analysis
1.5.3 Some Future Challenges
1.6 Multimedia
References
2. Fundamental Parameters of Antennas
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Radiation Pattern
2.2.1 Radiation Pattern Lobes
2.2.2 Isotropic, Directional, and Omnidirectional Patterns
2.2.3 Principal Patterns
2.2.4 Field Regions
2.2.5 Radian and Steradian
2.3 Radiation Power Density
2.4 Radiation Intensity
2.5 Beamwidth
2.6 Directivity
2.6.1 Directional Patterns
2.6.2 Omnidirectional Patterns
2.7 Numerical Techniques
2.8 Antenna Efficiency
2.9 Gain
2.10 Beam Efficiency
2.11 Bandwidth
2.12 Polarization
2.12.1 Linear, Circular, and Elliptical Polarizations
2.12.2 Polarization Loss Factor and Efficiency
2.13 Input Impedance
2.14 Antenna Radiation Efficiency
2.15 Antenna Vector Effective Length and Equivalent Areas
2.15.1 Vector Effective Length
2.15.2 Antenna Equivalent Areas
2.16 Maximum Directivity and Maximum Effective Area
2.17 Friis Transmission Equation and Radar Range Equation
2.17.1 Friis Transmission Equation
2.17.2 Radar Range Equation
2.17.3 Antenna Radar Cross Section
2.18 Antenna Temperature
2.19 Multimedia
References
Problems
3. Radiation Integrals and Auxiliary Potential Functions
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Vector Potential A for an Electric Current Source J
3.3 The Vector Potential F for a Magnetic Current Source M
3.4 Electric and Magnetic Fields for Electric (J) and Magnetic (M) Current Sources
3.5 Solution of the Inhomogeneous Vector Potential Wave Equation
3.6 Far-Field Radiation
3.7 Duality Theorem
3.8 Reciprocity and Reaction Theorems
3.8.1 Reciprocity for Two Antennas
3.8.2 Reciprocity for Antenna Radiation Patterns
References
Problems
4. Linear Wire Antennas
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Infinitesimal Dipole
4.2.1 Radiated Fields
4.2.2 Power Density and Radiation Resistance
4.2.3 Radian Distance and Radian Sphere
4.2.4 Near-Field (kr << 1) Region
4.2.5 Intermediate-Field (kr > 1) Region
4.2.6 Far-Field (kr >> 1) Region
4.2.7 Directivity
4.3 Small Dipole
4.4 Region Separation
4.4.1 Far-Field (Fraunhofer) Region
4.4.2 Radiating Near-Field (Fresnel) Region
4.4.3 Reactive Near-Field Region
4.5 Finite Length Dipole
4.5.1 Current Distribution
4.5.2 Radiated Fields: Element Factor, Space Factor, and Pattern Multiplication
4.5.3 Power Density, Radiation Intensity, and Radiation Resistance
4.5.4 Directivity
4.5.5 Input Resistance
4.5.6 Finite Feed Gap
4.6 Half-Wavelength Dipole
4.7 Linear Elements near or on Infinite Perfect Conductors
4.7.1 Image Theory
4.7.2 Vertical Electric Dipole
4.7.3 Approximate Formulas for Rapid Calculations and Design
4.7.4 Antennas for Mobile Communication Systems
4.7.5 Horizontal Electric Dipole
4.8 Ground Effects
4.8.1 Vertical Electric Dipole
4.8.2 Horizontal Electric Dipole
4.8.3 Earth Curvature
4.9 Computer Codes
4.10 Multimedia
References
Problems
5. Loop Antennas
5.1 Introduction
5.2 Small Circular Loop
5.2.1 Radiated Fields
5.2.2 Small Loop and Infinitesimal Magnetic Dipole
5.2.3 Power Density and Radiation Resistance
5.2.4 Near-Field (kr << 1) Region
5.2.5 Far-Field (kr >> 1) Region
5.2.6 Radiation Intensity and Directivity
5.2.7 Equivalent Circuit
5.3 Circular Loop of Constant Current
5.3.1 Radiated Fields
5.3.2 Power Density, Radiation Intensity, Radiation Resistance, and Directivity
5.4 Circular Loop with Nonuniform Current
5.4.1 Arrays
5.4.2 Design Procedure
5.5 Ground and Earth Curvature Effects for Circular Loops
5.6 Polygonal Loop Antennas
5.6.1 Square Loop
5.6.2 Triangular, Rectangular, and Rhombic Loops
5.7 Ferrite Loop
5.7.1 Radiation Resistance
5.7.2 Ferrite-Loaded Receiving Loop
5.8 Mobile Communication Systems Applications
5.9 Multimedia
References
Problems
6. Arrays: Linear, Planar, and Circular
6.1 Introduction
6.2 Two-Element Array
6.3 N-Element Linear Array: Uniform Amplitude and Spacing
6.3.1 Broadside Array
6.3.2 Ordinary End-Fire Array
6.3.3 Phased (Scanning) Array
6.3.4 Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array
6.4 N-Element Linear Array: Directivity
6.4.1 Broadside Array
6.4.2 Ordinary End-Fire Array
6.4.3 Hansen-Woodyard End-Fire Array
6.5 Design Procedure
6.6 N-Element Linear Array: Three-Dimensional Characteristics
6.6.1 N-Elements along Z-Axis
6.6.2 N-Elements along X- or Y-Axis
6.7 Rectangular-to-Polar Graphical Solution
6.8 N-Element Linear Array: Uniform Spacing, Nonuniform Amplitude
6.8.1 Array Factor
6.8.2 Binomial Array
6.8.3 Dolph-Tschebyscheff Array
6.9 Superdirectivity
6.9.1 Efficiency and Directivity
6.9.2 Designs with Constraints
6.10 Planar Array
6.10.1 Array Factor
6.10.2 Beamwidth
6.10.3 Directivity
6.11 Design Considerations
6.12 Circular Array
6.12.1 Array Factor
6.13 Multimedia
References
Problems
7. Antenna Synthesis and Continuous Sources
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Continuous Sources
7.2.1 Line-Source
7.2.2 Discretization of Continuous Sources
7.3 Schelkunoff Polynomial Method
7.4 Fourier Transform Method
7.4.1 Line-Source
7.4.2 Linear Array
7.5 Woodward-Lawson Method
7.5.1 Line-Source
7.5.2 Linear Array
7.6 Taylor Line-Source (Tschebyscheff-Error)
7.6.1 Design Procedure
7.7 Taylor Line-Source (One-Parameter)
7.8 Triangular, Cosine, and Cosine-Squared Amplitude Distributions
7.9 Line-Source Phase Distributions
7.10 Continuous Aperture Sources
7.10.1 Rectangular Aperture
7.10.2 Circular Aperture
7.11 Multimedia
References
Problems
8. Integral Equations, Moment Method, and Self and Mutual Impedances
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Integral Equation Method
8.2.1 Electrostatic Charge Distribution
8.2.2 Integral Equation
8.3 Finite Diameter Wires
8.3.1 Pocklington's Integral Equation
8.3.2 Hallén's Integral Equation
8.3.3 Source Modeling
8.4 Moment Method Solution
8.4.1 Basis Functions
8.4.2 Weighting (Testing) Functions
8.5 Self-Impedance
8.5.1 Integral Equation-Moment Method
8.5.2 Induced EMF Method
8.6 Mutual Impedance between Linear Elements
8.6.1 Integral Equation-Moment Method
8.6.2 Induced EMF Method
8.7 Mutual Coupling in Arrays
8.7.1 Coupling in the Transmitting Mode
8.7.2 Coupling in the Receiving Mode
8.7.3 Mutual Coupling on Array Performance
8.7.4 Coupling in an Infinite Regular Array
8.7.5 Grating Lobes Considerations
8.8 Multimedia
References
Problems
9. Broadband Dipoles and Matching Techniques
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Biconical Antenna
9.2.1 Radiated Fields
9.2.2 Input Impedance
9.3 Triangular Sheet, Bow-Tie, and Wire Simulation
9.4 Cylindrical Dipole
9.4.1 Bandwidth
9.4.2 Input Impedance
9.4.3 Resonance and Ground Plane Simulation
9.4.4 Radiation Patterns
9.4.5 Equivalent Radii
9.4.6 Dielectric Coating
9.5 Folded Dipole
9.6 Discone and Conical Skirt Monopole
9.7 Matching Techniques
9.7.1 Stub-Matching
9.7.2 Quarter-Wavelength Transformer
9.7.3 T-Match
9.7.4 Gamma Match
9.7.5 Omega Match
9.7.6 Baluns and Transformers
9.8 Multimedia
References
Problems
10. Traveling Wave and Broadband Antennas
10.1 Introduction
10.2 Traveling Wave Antennas
10.2.1 Long Wire
10.2.2 V Antenna
10.2.3 Rhombic Antenna
10.3 Broadband Antennas
10.3.1 Helical Antenna
10.3.2 Electric-Magnetic Dipole
10.3.3 Yagi-Uda Array of Linear Elements
10.3.4 Yagi-Uda Array of Loops
10.4 Multimedia
References
Problems
11. Frequency Independent Antennas, Antenna Miniaturization, and Fractal Antennas
11.1 Introduction
11.2 Theory
11.3 Equiangular Spiral Antennas
11.3.1 Planar Spiral
11.3.2 Conical Spiral
11.4 Log-Periodic Antennas
11.4.1 Planar and Wire Surfaces
11.4.2 Dipole Array
11.4.3 Design of Dipole Array
11.5 Fundamental Limits of Electrically Small Antennas
11.6 Fractal Antennas
11.7 Multimedia
References
Problems
12. Aperture Antennas
12.1 Introduction
12.2 Field Equivalence Principle: Huygens' Principle
12.3 Radiation Equations
12.4 Directivity
12.5 Rectangular Apertures
12.5.1 Uniform Distribution on an Infinite Ground Plane
12.5.2 Uniform Distribution in Space
12.5.3 TE_10 -Mode Distribution on an Infinite Ground Plane
12.5.4 Beam Efficiency
12.6 Circular Apertures
12.6.1 Uniform Distribution on an Infinite Ground Plane
12.6.2 TE_11 -Mode Distribution on an Infinite Ground Plane
12.6.3 Beam Efficiency
12.7 Design Considerations
12.7.1 Rectangular Aperture
12.7.2 Circular Aperture
12.8 Babinet's Principle
12.9 Fourier Transforms in Aperture Antenna Theory
12.9.1 Fourier Transforms-Spectral Domain
12.9.2 Radiated Fields
12.9.3 Asymptotic Evaluation of Radiated Field
12.9.4 Dielectric-Covered Apertures
12.9.5 Aperture Admittance
12.10 Ground Plane Edge Effects: The Geometrical Theory of Diffraction
12.11 Multimedia
References
Problems
13. Horn Antennas
13.1 Introduction
13.2 E-Plane Sectoral Horn
13.2.1 Aperture Fields
13.2.2 Radiated Fields
13.2.3 Directivity
13.3 H-Plane Sectoral Horn
13.3.1 Aperture Fields
13.3.2 Radiated Fields
13.3.3 Directivity
13.4 Pyramidal Horn
13.4.1 Aperture Fields, Equivalent, and Radiated Fields
13.4.2 Directivity
13.4.3 Design Procedure
13.5 Conical Horn
13.6 Corrugated Horn
13.7 Aperture-Matched Horns
13.8 Multimode Horns
13.9 Dielectric-Loaded Horns
13.10 Phase Center
13.11 Multimedia
References
Problems
14. Microstrip Antennas
14.1 Introduction
14.1.1 Basic Characteristics
14.1.2 Feeding Methods
14.1.3 Methods of Analysis
14.2 Rectangular Patch
14.2.1 Transmission-Line Model
14.2.2 Cavity Model
14.2.3 Directivity
14.3 Circular Patch
14.3.1 Electric and Magnetic Fields - TM^z_mnp
14.3.2 Resonant Frequencies
14.3.3 Design
14.3.4 Equivalent Current Densities and Fields Radiated
14.3.5 Conductance and Directivity
14.3.6 Resonant Input Resistance
14.4 Quality Factor, Bandwidth, and Efficiency
14.5 Input Impedance
14.6 Coupling
14.7 Circular Polarization
14.8 Arrays and Feed Networks
14.9 Multimedia
References
Problems
15. Reflector Antennas
15.1 Introduction
15.2 Plane Reflector
15.3 Corner Reflector
15.3.1 90° Corner Reflector
15.3.2 Other Corner Reflectors
15.4 Parabolic Reflector
15.4.1 Front-Fed Parabolic Reflector
15.4.2 Cassegrain Reflectors
15.5 Spherical Reflector
15.6 Multimedia
References
Problems
16. Smart Antennas
16.1 Introduction
16.2 Smart-Antenna Analogy
16.3 Cellular Radio Systems Evolution
16.3.1 Omnidirectional Systems
16.3.2 Smart-Antenna Systems
16.4 Signal Propagation
16.5 Smart Antennas' Benefits
16.6 Smart Antennas' Drawbacks
16.7 Antenna
16.7.1 Array Design
16.7.2 Linear Array
16.7.3 Planar Array
16.8 Antenna Beamforming
16.8.1 Overview of Direction-of-Arrival (DOA) Algorithms
16.8.2 Adaptive Beamforming
16.8.3 Mutual Coupling
16.8.4 Optimal Beamforming Techniques
16.9 Mobile Ad hoc Networks (MANETs)
16.9.1 Overview of Mobile Ad hoc NETworks (MANETs)
16.9.2 MANETs Employing Smart-Antenna Systems
16.10 Smart-Antenna System Design, Simulation, and Results
16.10.1 Design Process
16.10.2 Single Element-Microstrip Patch Design
16.10.3 Rectangular Patch
16.10.4 Array Design
16.10.5 4 × 4 Planar Array versus 8 × 8 Planar Array
16.10.6 Adaptive Beamforming
16.11 Beamforming, Diversity Combining, Rayleigh-Fading, and Trellis-Coded Modulation
16.12 Other Geometries
16.13 Multimedia
References
Problems
17. Antenna Measurements
17.1 Introduction
17.2 Antenna Ranges
17.2.1 Reflection Ranges
17.2.2 Free-Space Ranges
17.2.3 Compact Ranges
17.2.4 Near-Field/Far-Field Methods
17.3 Radiation Patterns
17.3.1 Instrumentation
17.3.2 Amplitude Pattern
17.3.3 Phase Measurements
17.4 Gain Measurements
17.4.1 Absolute-Gain Measurements
17.4.2 Gain-Transfer (Gain-Comparison) Measurements
17.5 Directivity Measurements
17.6 Radiation Efficiency
17.7 Impedance Measurements
17.8 Current Measurements
17.9 Polarization Measurements
17.10 Scale Model Measurements
References
Appendices
Appendix I
Appendix II
Appendix III
Appendix IV
Appendix V
Appendix VI
VI.1 Trigonometric
VI.2 Hyperbolic
VI.3 Logarithmic
Appendix VII
VII.1 Vector Transformations
VII.1.1 Rectangular to Cylindrical (and Vice Versa)
VII.1.2 Cylindrical to Spherical (and Vice Versa)
VII.1.3 Rectangular to Spherical (and Vice Versa)
VII.2 Vector Differential Operators
VII.2.1 Rectangular Coordinates
VII.2.2 Cylindrical Coordinates
VII.2.3 Spherical Coordinates
VII.3 Vector Identities
VII.3.1 Addition and Multiplication
VII.3.2 Differentiation
VII.3.3 Integration
Appendix VIII
Appendix IX
IX.1 Television
IX.1.1 Very High Frequency (VHF) Channels
IX.1.2 Ultra High Frequency (UHF) Channels
IX.2 Radio
IX.2.1 Amplitude Modulation (AM) Radio
IX.2.2 Frequency Modulation (FM) Radio
IX.3 Amateur Bands
IX.4 Cellular Telephone
IX.4.1 Land Mobile Systems
IX.4.2 Cordless Telephone
IX.5 Radar IEEE Band Designations
Index
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
ANTENNA THEORY
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN
THIRD EDITION
Constantine A. Balanis
A JOHN WILEY & SONS, INC., PUBLICATION
Copyright 2005 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Published simultaneously in Canada.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or
by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as
permitted under Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior
written permission of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to
the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, 978-750-8400, fax
978-646-8600, or on the web at www.copyright.com. Requests to the Publisher for permission should be
addressed to the Permissions Department, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030,
(201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008.
Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in
preparing this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or
completeness of the contents of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of
merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose. No warranty may be created or extended by sales
representatives or written sales materials. The advice and strategies contained herein may not be suitable
for your situation. You should consult with a professional where appropriate. Neither the publisher nor
author shall be liable for any loss of profit or any other commercial damages, including but not limited to
special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.
For general information on our other products and services please contact our Customer Care Department
within the U.S. at 877-762-2974, outside the U.S. at 317-572-3993 or fax 317-572-4002.
Wiley also publishes its books in a variety of electronic formats. Some content that appears in print,
however, may not be available in electronic format.
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data is available.
ISBN: 0-471-66782-X
Printed in the United States of America.
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Preface
The third edition of Antenna Theory is designed to meet the needs of electrical engi-
neering and physics students at the senior undergraduate and beginning graduate levels,
and those of practicing engineers. The text presumes that the students have knowledge
of basic undergraduate electromagnetic theory, including Maxwell’s equations and the
wave equation, introductory physics, and differential and integral calculus. Mathemat-
ical techniques required for understanding some advanced topics in the later chapters
are incorporated in the individual chapters or are included as appendices.
The third edition has maintained all of the attractive features of the first two edi-
tions, including the three-dimensional graphs to display the radiation characteristics of
antennas, especially the amplitude patterns. This feature was hailed as an innovative
and first of its kind addition in a textbook on antennas. Additional graphs have been
added to illustrate features of the radiation characteristics of some antennas. However,
there have been many new features added to this edition. In particular,
ž A new chapter on Smart Antennas (Chapter 16)
ž A section on Fractal Antennas (Section 11.6)
ž Summary tables of important equations in the respective chapters (Chapters 2, 4,
5, 6, 12–14)
ž New figures, photos, and tables
ž Additional end-of-the-chapter problems
ž CD with the following Multimedia Material:
ž Power Point view graphs of lecture notes for each chapter, in multicolor
ž End-of-the-chapter Interactive Questionnaires for review (40–65 for each chap-
ter) based on Java
ž Animations based on Java
ž Applets based on Java
ž MATLAB programs translated from the FORTRAN programs of the second
edition
ž A number of new MATLAB programs
ž FORTRAN programs from the second edition.
The CD is attached to the book, and it will open automatically once inserted in
the computer. It is highly recommended that the reader uses the Internet Explorer
(IE) to open the Multimedia Material; other browsers may not perform well. For
additional instructions on how to open and use the material in the CD, there is a
HELP file in the CD.
xiii
xiv
PREFACE
The book’s main objective is to introduce, in a unified manner, the fundamental princi-
ples of antenna theory and to apply them to the analysis, design, and measurements of
antennas. Because there are so many methods of analysis and design and a plethora of
antenna structures, applications are made to some of the most basic and practical con-
figurations, such as linear dipoles; loops; arrays; broadband, and frequency-independent
antennas; aperture antennas; horn antennas; microstrip antennas; and reflector antennas.
A tutorial chapter on Smart Antennas has been included to introduce the student in
a technology that will advance antenna theory and design, and revolutionize wireless
communications. It is based on antenna theory, digital signal processing, networks and
communications. MATLAB simulation software has also been included, as well as a
plethora of references for additional reading.
Introductory material on analytical methods, such as the Moment Method and
Fourier transform (spectral) technique, is also included. These techniques, together with
the fundamental principles of antenna theory, can be used to analyze and design almost
any antenna configuration. A chapter on antenna measurements introduces state-of-the-
art methods used in the measurements of the most basic antenna characteristics (pattern,
gain, directivity, radiation efficiency, impedance, current, and polarization) and updates
progress made in antenna instrumentation, antenna range design, and scale modeling.
Techniques and systems used in near- to far-field measurements and transformations
are also discussed.
A sufficient number of topics have been covered, some for the first time in an under-
graduate text, so that the book will serve not only as a text but also as a reference for the
practicing and design engineer and even the amateur radio buff. These include design
procedures, and associated computer programs, for Yagi–Uda and log-periodic arrays,
horns, and microstrip patches; synthesis techniques using the Schelkunoff, Fourier
transform, Woodward–Lawson, Tschebyscheff, and Taylor methods; radiation charac-
teristics of corrugated, aperture-matched, and multimode horns; analysis and design
of rectangular and circular microstrip patches; and matching techniques such as the
binomial, Tschebyscheff, T-, gamma, and omega matches.
The text contains sufficient mathematical detail to enable the average undergraduate
electrical engineering and physics students to follow, without too much difficulty,
the flow of analysis and design. A certain amount of analytical detail, rigor, and
thoroughness allows many of the topics to be traced to their origin. My experiences as
a student, engineer, and teacher have shown that a text for this course must not be a
book of unrelated formulas, and it must not resemble a “cookbook.” This book begins
with the most elementary material, develops underlying concepts needed for sequential
topics, and progresses to more advanced methods and system configurations. Each
chapter is subdivided into sections or subsections whose individual headings clearly
identify the antenna characteristic(s) discussed, examined, or illustrated.
A distinguished feature of this book is its three-dimensional graphical illustrations
from the first edition, which have been expanded and supplemented in the second
and third editions. In the past, antenna texts have displayed the three-dimensional
energy radiated by an antenna by a number of separate two-dimensional patterns. With
the advent and revolutionary advances in digital computations and graphical displays,
an additional dimension has been introduced for the first time in an undergraduate
antenna text by displaying the radiated energy of a given radiator by a single three-
dimensional graphical illustration. Such an image, formed by the graphical capabilities
of the computer and available at most computational facilities, gives a clear view of
PREFACE
xv
the energy radiated in all space surrounding the antenna. It is hoped that this will lead
to a better understanding of the underlying principles of radiation and provide a clearer
visualization of the pattern formation in all space.
In addition, there is an abundance of general graphical illustrations, design data,
references, and an expanded list of end-of-the chapter problems. Many of the principles
are illustrated with examples, graphical illustrations, and physical arguments. Although
students are often convinced that they understand the principles, difficulties arise when
they attempt to use them. An example, especially a graphical illustration, can often
better illuminate those principles. As they say, “a picture is worth a thousand words.”
Numerical techniques and computer solutions are illustrated and encouraged. A
number of MATLAB computer programs are included in the CD attached to the book.
Each program is interactive and prompts the user to enter the data in a sequential man-
ner. Some of these programs are translations of the FORTRAN ones that were included
in the first and second editions. However, many new ones have been developed. Every
chapter, other than Chapters 3 and 17, have at least one MATLAB computer program;
some have as many as four. The outputs of the MATLAB programs include graphical
illustrations and tabulated results. For completeness, the FORTRAN computer pro-
grams are also included, although there is not as much interest in them. The computer
programs can be used for analysis and design. Some of them are more of the design
type while some of the others are of the analysis type. Associated with each program
there is a READ ME file, which summarizes the respective program.
The purpose of the Lecture Notes is to provide the instructors a copy of the text
figures and some of the most important equations of each chapter. They can be used by
the instructors in their lectures but need to be supplemented with additional narratives.
The students can use them to listen to the instructors’ lectures, without having to take
detailed notes, but can supplement them in the margins with annotations from the
lectures. Each instructor will use the notes in a different way.
The Interactive Questionnaires are intended as reviews of the material in each
chapter. The student can use them to review for tests, exams, and so on. For each ques-
tion, there are three possible answers, but only one is correct. If the reader chooses
one of them and it the correct answer, it will so indicate. However, if the chosen
answer is the wrong one, the program will automatically indicate the correct answer.
An explanation button is provided, which gives a short narrative on the correct answer
or indicates where in the book the correct answer can be found.
The Animations can be used to illustrate some of the radiation characteristics, such
as amplitude patterns, of some antenna types, like line sources, dipoles, loops, arrays,
and horns. The Applets cover more chapters and can be used to examine some of the
radiation characteristics (such as amplitude patterns, impedance, bandwidth, etc.) of
some of the antennas. This can be accomplished very rapidly without having to resort
to the MATLAB programs, which are more detailed.
For course use, the text is intended primarily for a two-semester (or two- or three-
quarter) sequence in antenna theory. The first course should be given at the senior
undergraduate level, and should cover most of the material in Chapters 1 through 7,
and Chapters 16 and 17. The material in Chapters 8 through 16 should be covered in a
beginning graduate-level course. Selected chapters and sections from the book can be
covered in a single semester, without loss of continuity. However, it is almost essential
that most of the material in Chapters 2 through 6 be covered in the first course and
before proceeding to any more advanced topics. To cover all the material of the text
xvi
PREFACE
in the proposed time frame would be, in some cases, a very ambitious task. Sufficient
topics have been included, however, to make the text complete and to give the teacher
the flexibility to emphasize, deemphasize, or omit sections or chapters. Some of the
chapters and sections can be omitted without loss of continuity.
In the entire book, an ej ωt time variation is assumed, and it is suppressed. The Inter-
national System of Units, which is an expanded form of the rationalized MKS system,
is used in the text. In some cases, the units of length are in meters (or centimeters)
and in feet (or inches). Numbers in parentheses () refer to equations, whereas those in
brackets [] refer to references. For emphasis, the most important equations, once they
are derived, are boxed. In some of the basic chapters, the most important equations
are summarized in tables.
I would like to acknowledge the invaluable suggestions from all those that con-
tributed to the first and second editions, too numerous to mention here. Their names
and contributions are stated in the respective editions. It is a pleasure to acknowl-
edge the invaluable suggestions and constructive criticisms of the reviewers of the
third edition: Dr. Stuart A. Long of University of Houston, Dr. Christos Christodoulou
of University of New Mexico, Dr. Leo Kempel of Michigan State, and Dr. Sergey
N. Makarov of Worcester Polytechnic University. There have been many other con-
tributors to this edition, and their contributions are valued and acknowledged. Many
graduate and undergraduate students from Arizona State University who have written
many of the MATLAB computer programs. Some of these programs were translated
from the FORTRAN ones, which appeared in the first and second editions. How-
ever a number of entirely new MATLAB programs have been created, which are
included for the first time, and do not have a FORTRAN counterpart. The name(s)
of the individual contributors to each program is included in the respective program.
The author acknowledges Dr. Sava V. Savov of Technical University of Varna, Bul-
garia, for the valuable discussions, contributions and figures related to the integration
of equation (5-59) in closed form in terms of Bessel functions; Dr. Yahya Rahmat-
Samii and Dr. John P. Gianvittorio of UCLA for the figures on Fractal antennas. I
would like to thank Craig R. Birtcher of Arizona State University for proofreading
part of the manuscript; Bo Yang of Arizona State University for proofreading part
of the manuscript, revising a number of the MATLAB programs, and developing the
flow chart for accessing the CD Multimedia material; and Razib S. Shishir of Arizona
State University for developing all of the Java-based software, including the Interac-
tive Questionnaires, Applets, and Animations. Special thanks to the many companies
(Motorola, Inc., Northrop Grumman Corporation, March Microwave Systems, B.V.,
Ball Aerospace & Technologies Corporation, Samsung, Midland Radio Corporation,
Winegard Company, Antenna Research Associates, Inc., Seavey Engineering Asso-
ciates, Inc., and TCI, A Dielectric Company) for providing photos, illustrations, and
copyright permissions. The author acknowledges the long-term friendship and support
from Dennis DeCarlo, George C. Barber, Dr. Karl Moeller, Dr. Brian McCabe, Dr. W.
Dev Palmer, Michael C. Miller, Frank A. Cansler, and the entire AHE Program mem-
bership, too long to be included here. The friendship and collaborative arrangements
with Prof. Thodoros D. Tsiboukis and Prof. John N. Sahalos, both from the Aristotle
University of Thessaloniki, Greece, are recognized and appreciated. The loyalty and
friendship of my graduate students is acknowledged and valued. To all my teachers,
thank you. You have been my role models and inspiration.
PREFACE
xvii
I am also grateful to the staff of John Wiley & Sons, Inc., especially George Telecki,
Associate Publisher, Wiley-Interscience, for his interest, support, cooperation, and pro-
duction of the third edition; Danielle Lacourciere, Associate Managing Editor, for the
production of the book; and Rachel Witmer, Editorial Assistant, for managing the
production of the cover. Finally, I must pay tribute to my family (Helen, Renie, and
Stephanie) for their support, patience, sacrifice, and understanding for the many hours
of neglect during the completion of the first, second, and third editions of this book.
It has been a pleasant but daunting task.
Constantine A. Balanis
Arizona State University
Tempe, AZ
Contents
Preface
1 Antennas
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Types of Antennas
1.3 Radiation Mechanism
1.4 Current Distribution on a Thin Wire Antenna
1.5 Historical Advancement
1.6 Multimedia
References
2 Fundamental Parameters of Antennas
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Radiation Pattern
2.3 Radiation Power Density
2.4 Radiation Intensity
2.5 Beamwidth
2.6 Directivity
2.7 Numerical Techniques
2.8 Antenna Efficiency
2.9 Gain
2.10 Beam Efficiency
2.11 Bandwidth
2.12 Polarization
2.13
2.14 Antenna Radiation Efficiency
2.15 Antenna Vector Effective Length and Equivalent Areas
2.16 Maximum Directivity and Maximum Effective Area
2.17 Friis Transmission Equation and Radar Range Equation
2.18 Antenna Temperature
2.19 Multimedia
References
Problems
Input Impedance
xiii
1
1
4
7
17
20
24
24
27
27
27
38
40
42
44
58
64
65
69
70
70
80
85
87
92
94
104
108
112
114
vii
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