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Radar Design Principles Signal Processing and the Environment Fred E. Nathanson Georgia Tech Research lnstitute Rockville, Maryland with J. Patrick Reilly The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory Laurel, Maryland Marvin N. Cohen Georgia Tech Research lnstitute Georgia lnstitute of Technology Atlanta, Georgia Second Edition s c ; 3 PUBLISHING, IRC. MENDHAM, NEW JERSEY ~

This is a reprinting of the 199 1 edition originally published by McGraw-Hill, Inc. 0 1999 by Marvin N. Cohen, Allan J. Nathanson, Lila H. Nathanson, Janice N. Smith, J. Patrick Reilly 0 1991, 1969 by McGmw-Hill, Inc. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or used in any form whatsoever without written permission from the publisher. For information, contact the publisher, SciTech Publishing, Inc., 89 Dean Road, Mendham, NJ 07945 Printed in the United States of America 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 ISBN 1-891 121-09-X SciTech books may be purchased at quantity discounts for educational, business, or sales promotional use. For information, contact the publisher: SciTech Publishing, Inc. 89 Dean Road Mendham, NJ 07945 e-mail: scitech@worldnet.att.net www. scitechpub .com IEEE members may order directly from the association. The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. PO Box 133 1,445 Hoes Lane Piscataway, NJ 08855-1331 USA e-mail : customer. service@ieee . org www.ieee .org IEEE Order No.: PC5822

Acknowledgments The dramatic advances in radar systems and especially in radar signal processing are the result of the efforts of many individuals in many fields. To help me assimilate this information, I enlisted the aid of a number of knowledgeable coworkers in the radar field. The primary credit goes to J. Patrick Reilly of the Johns Hopkins University, Applied Physics Laboratory, for both the original book and this edition. He authored Chap. 9 and significant portions of Chap. 1, 2,3,5,6, and 7. Dr. Marvin Cohen of Georgia Tech Research Institute (GTRI) contributed a new version of Chap. 12 and contributed to the rewrite of Chap. 13. I thank Dr. Mark Richards (GTRI) who contributed the new section on pulse Doppler signal processor architecture; Me1 Belcher (GTRI) for the CFAR section in Chap. 4; A. Corbeil, J. DiDomizio, and R. DiDomizio of Technology Service Corporation, Trumbull, Connecticut for the new material on track before detect in Chap. 4; and Allen Sinsky of Allied- Signal for updating the ambiguity function material in Chap. 8. I remain indebted to those at the Applied Physics Laboratory who assisted with the first edition, and to my colleagues during 18 years at Technology Service Corporation where much of the new material evolved from various programs and short courses. I wish to thank Drs. E. K. Reedy, J. L. Eaves, and Jim Wiltse of Georgia Tech Research Institute for their encouragement and support in preparing this edition. I greatly appreciate the assistance of Janice Letow for typing, assembling, and keeping the manuscript on track. My final thanks to the patience and understanding of my wife, Lila, who supported me while I underestimated the effort of a new edition. Finally, thanks to my daughter and son-in-law, and to my son who expected me to build him a radar 20 years ago. I still do not know if I will ever get to build him one. xiii

McGraw-Hill Reference Books of Interest Handbooks Standard Handbook for Mechanical Engineers Standard Handbook for Electrical Engineers AVALONE AND BAUMEISTER COOMBS Basic Electronic Instrument Handbook COOMBS Printed Circuits Handbook CROFT AND SUMMERS American Electricians’ Handbook DI GIACOMO Digital Bus Handbook DI GIACOMO VLSI Handbook FINK AND BEATY FINK AND CHRISTIANSEN Electronics Engineers’ Handbook Standard Handbook of Engineering Calculations HICKS INGLIS Electronic Communications Handbook JOHNSON AND JASIK Antenna Engineering Handbook JURAN Quality Control Handbook KAUFMAN AND SEIDMAN Handbook for Electronics Engineering Technicians KAUFMAN AND SEIDMAN Handbook of Electronics Calculations KURT2 Handbook of Engineering Economics SKOLNIK Radar Handbook STOUT AND KAUFMAN Handbook of Microcircuit Design and Application STOUT AND KAUFMAN Handbook of Operational Amplifier Design Turn Engineering Mathematics Handbook W l L L I m s Designer’s Handbook of Integrated Circuits WILLIAMS AND TAYLOR Electronic Filter Design Handbook Dictionaries Dictionary of Computers Dictionary of Electrical and Electronic Engineering Dictionary of Engineering Dictionary of Scientific and Technical Terms MARKUS Electronics Dictionary Other Books BOITHIAS Radiowave Propagation GKiwirm- z rKci7owaue Arnpfcflers ana‘ Usciliiaators JOHNSON AND JASIK Antenna Applications Reference Guide MILLICAN Modern Antenna Design SKOLNIK Introduction to Radar Systems

ABOUT THE AUTHOR A specialist in radar search techniques, radar systems, radar signal processing, and electro-optical devices, Fred E. Nathanson has supervised laboratory and prototype search and radar development and served with numerous evaluation and advisory groups. He is currently Principal Research Engineer with Georgia Tech Research Institute in Rockville, Maryland. Mr. Nathanson holds a B.E. in Electrical Engineering from John Hopkins University, and an M.S. from Columbia. A Fellow of the IEEE “for contributions to radar systems” and a member of the Radar Systems Panel, he has published many technical articles and taught intensive short courses worldwide.

Preface The first version of this book was written in the late 1960s. At that time the relationships between the radar waveform, the carrier frequency, the signal processing, and the environment were understood well enough to project some highly capable systems. The digital age was just beginning, but implementation was still cumbersome and expensive. During the late 1970s and early 1980s a number of sophisticated but highly successful radars were developed using the knowledge of the environment to select the waveforms and taking advantage of the rapid progress in digital technology. As the 1980s evolved, radar was beginning to be called a mature technology until the Exocet missile, “stealth targets, sophisticated electronic countersurveillance measures (ECM), drug interdiction requirements, etc., demanded a new look at radar design and technology. This in turn requires further knowledge of the details of target reflectivity, natural clutter and clutter artifacts, and a radar’s susceptibility to electronic interference. The potential of remote sensing and space-based radars also requires a better understanding of the environment and signal processing. Thus the emphasis of this book is on radar design to cope with the “total environment” rather than any single performance goal. The total enuzronrnent, as defined here, includes the unwanted reflections from the sea, land areas, precipitation, and chaff, as well as thermal noise and jamming. It also recognizes that mapping, weather sensing, terrain avoidance, altimetry, etc., may be designed for a single-function radar or as modes of a multifunction radar. As in the first edition, the book is divided into three parts. The first four chapters contain an introduction to radar; expanded material on the fundamentals of antennas, transmitters, multipath and ducting problems; and a review of the radar equations for the detection of targets in the presence of noise and natural and man-made interference. This is followed by descriptions of the statistics of target detection and the techniques for obtaining automatic detection with considerable new material on advanced constant false alarm techniques and track- before-detect. xi

xii Preface Chapter 5 contains a mostly new and thorough survey and analysis of the available material on the reflectivity of both natural and man- made targets. It includes the spectral, polarization, and wavelength properties since they all have been shown to have a substantial effect on the choice of processing technique. Chapter 6 contains greatly expanded material on propagation and the reflectivity from precipitation and chaff. This includes statistics on their occurrence, carrier-frequency selection, and frequency-agility effects, wind shear phenomena, the bright band, anomalous echoes, etc. with statistical descriptors to evaluate signal-processing techniques. Chapter 7 follows in the same format to describe sea and land clutter with new models, and statistical descriptions that must be included when analyzing high- resolution radar detection of low-flying targets. Reflectivity is related to carrier frequency, polarization, and ducting effects. Bistatic data are included. Chapters 8 through 13 contain descriptions of the various signal- processing techniques that are widely used or proposed for future radar systems. After a general discussion of processing concepts, specific techniques are discussed for the detection of moving targets by use of the Doppler effect (CW, MTI, pulse Doppler), FFTs, and fast convolvers and the pulse compression techniques (phase-coding, frequency-coding, and linear FM). In most of these signal-processing chapters there is a discussion of the theory of operation, and diagrams of typical processors with emphasis on the new digital implementations and the limitations and losses. The equations for performance evaluation, along with advantages and disadvantages of each technique, are generally included. Chapter 14 describes some newer or more specialized techniques such as the moving target detector (MTD) and clutter maps; ground, airborne, and space-based meteorological radars often using pulse-pair processors; and surveillance radars on aerostats. The final section contains a description on how to analyze or simulate coherent radars including the limitations and related loss terms. It is not suggested that there is an optimum radar or even a generally optimum waveform, but that in the impending era of adaptive radar, the radar will sense the environment and adapt to this information. While not specifically written as a textbook, the earlier edition was used for a number of graduate courses on radar and in many intensive short courses. An attempt has been made to better organize the material, while retaining the chapter structure for those familiar with the first edition. Supplementary material and further derivations are available in the 800 references. Fred E. Nathanson

Contents Preface Acknowledgments xi xiii Chapter 1. Radar and Its Composite Environment F. E. Nathanson and J. P. Reilly 1.1 Radar Functions and Applications 1.2 Evolution of Radar Signal Processing 1.3 Radar and the Radar Equation 1.4 Functions of Various Types of Radar 1.5 Target-Detection Radars for Aircraft, Missiles, and Satellites 1.6 Radar Frequency Bands and Carrier Selection 1.7 Surface and Low-Altitude Target Detection 1.8 Criteria for Choice of Signal-Processing Techniques 1.9 Antenna and Array Considerations 1.10 Transmitters 1.11 Radar Grazing Angle for Refractive Conditions-?4 Earth Approximation 1.12 Forward-Scatter Effects Chapter 2. Review of Radar Range Performance Computations F. E. Nathanson and J. P. Reilly 2.1 General Radar Range Equation 2.2 Radar Detection with Noise Jamming or Interference 2.3 Beacon and Repeater Equations 2.4 Bistatic Radar 2.5 Radar Detection Equations in Distributed Clutter (Volume Reflectors) for Pulse Radars 2.6 Pulse-Radar Detection Equations for Area Clutter 1 1 3 5 9 11 17 21 24 26 31 33 41 49 49 60 64 65 67 71 V

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